Method for Simulating Combustion in Digital Imagery with Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium Conditions

ABSTRACT

A combustion simulation system is provided. The combustion simulation system can be performed using a computing device operated by a computer user or artist. The computer-implemented method of generating one or more visual representations of a combustion even is provided. The method includes simulating the combustion event, which transforms combustion reactants into combustion products, the combustion event occurring at a reference pressure, automatically determining values of combustion properties, the values of the combustion properties being calculated as a function of a nonzero pressure field, and generating the one or more visual representations of the combustion event based on the values of combustion properties.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.63/003,098 filed on Mar. 31, 2020, which is incorporated by reference inits entirety for all purposes.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present disclosure generally relates to modeling in computergraphics applications, and more particularly to efficient methods ofcomputation used for simulating combustion reactions for use ingenerating computer-generated images depicting combustion reactions.

BACKGROUND

Combustion involves so many topics from both chemistry and physics thatit is difficult to imagine anything more interdisciplinary. Obviously,chemical kinetics plays a central role, but so do several disciplines ofphysics, like thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, quantum mechanics,and fluid dynamics to mention just a few.

Combustion is surprisingly challenging from the perspectives of bothunderstanding the fundamental chemical and physical processes, andmodeling these processes on a computer. For example, simulatingcombustion requires an understanding of many advanced topics, such asdiscrete numerical analysis and multi-variable calculus. Further,accurate physical and chemical models of combustion model complexdynamic processes that occur within extremely short timeframes and atsmall length scales. For example, chemical reactions typically happen infemtosecond time scales, which produce local shock waves that propagatein the materials at the speed of sound. Regarding length scales,turbulent mixing of fuel and oxidizer plays an important role innon-premixed combustion, which is most common in nature, and occurs atKolmogorov microscales (which can be as small a few molecules).Additionally, transport of heat, due to phenomena like convection,conduction, and radiation, is notoriously difficult to capturenumerically.

Generally speaking, accurately modeling combustion events is not neededfor computer graphics applications, which merely attempt to createrealistic visual representations, if more efficient processes can usedand do not materially affect visual results.

SUMMARY

A computer graphics system can generate computer-generated imagery, suchas images or frames of a video sequence, that in part might include avisualization of combustion, such as a movie action scene whereinsomething combusts without there necessarily being a real-worldcombustion being recorded. It is often desirable that such visualizationmatch well to what would appear in an actual combustion reaction. Acomputer-implemented method of simulating combustion processes mightcomprise steps under control of one or more computer systems configuredwith executable instructions, wherein the instructions provide forsimulating the combustion event, which transforms combustion reactantsinto combustion products, the combustion event occurring at atmosphericpressure, automatically determining values of combustion properties, thevalues of the combustion properties being calculated as a function of anonzero pressure field, and generating the one or more visualrepresentations of the combustion event based on the values ofcombustion properties.

The combustion event can be simulated with non-equilibrium conditions.

Generating one or more visual representations of combustion events mightcomprise generating visual representations of compressible fluidcharacteristics based on relative temperature and molar mass changesduring the transformation of the combustion reactants into thecombustion products. Simulation of the combustion event for a conditionmight be where an instantaneous pressure is changing and not at theatmospheric pressure, replacing the instantaneous pressure with theatmospheric pressure.

Continuum mechanics equations can be used for simulating the combustionevent taking into account at least conservation of momentum andconservation of mass of a physical system. Values of combustionproperties can include concentrations of the combustion reactants and/orproducts instead of densities of the combustion reactants and/orproducts. Values of combustion properties used for determining values ofcombustion properties can occur in a beginning step during simulation ofthe combustion event.

Values of combustion properties used for determining values ofcombustion properties occurs at end of simulation of the combustionevent. Simulating combustion reactants can be done as a first portion ofthe combustion event having a variable density, wherein the variabledensity during the first portion of the combustion event varies inresponse to a divergence of a velocity field pertaining to a flow of thecombustion reactants.

The method might further comprise simulating combustion products as asecond portion of the combustion event having a variable density,wherein the variable density during the second portion of the combustionevent varies in response to a divergence of a velocity field pertainingto a flow of the combustion products. The second portion of thecombustion event can be treated as incompressible or compressible.

The method might include using a convolution kernel to simulate heatdiffusion by blurring at least a portion of the one or more visualrepresentations of the combustion event. The convolution kernel might bederived from a heat equation.

The combustion reactants might comprise a linear alkane having achemical composition with a form “C_(n)H_(2n+2)” and might be one ormore of methane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈), butane (C₄H₁₀),pentane (C₅H₁₂), hexane (C₆H₁₄), heptane (C₇H₁₆), and octane (C₈H₁₈).

A computer system for simulating combustion processes might comprise atleast one processor and a computer-readable medium might storeinstructions, which when executed by the at least one processor, causesthe system to carry out one or more of the methods described herein. Anon-transitory computer-readable storage medium might storeinstructions, which when such instructions are executed by at least oneprocessor of some computer system or process, causes the computer systemor process to carry out one or more of the methods described herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Various embodiments in accordance with the present disclosure will bedescribed with reference to the drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a data flow through a system when the system isgenerating values of combustion properties, which may be used to createvisual representations of simulated combustion or for other purposes.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example chemical reaction between one unit ofmethane and two units of oxygen that produces one unit of carbon dioxideand two units of water, all in a gaseous state, as an example ofcombustion that might be simulated in a computer graphics process.

FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating combustion products obtained when acombustion, involving a combustion fuel (C_(n)H_(2n+2)), is fuel-lean,stoichiometric, and fuel-rich with respect to oxygen in an atmosphere(αO₂).

FIG. 4 is a version of the diagram of FIG. 3 that is simplified bycombining carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water vapor (H₂O) into a singleproduct labeled “Prod.”

FIG. 5 illustrates different types of enthalpy for combustion of methanein air.

FIG. 6 illustrates an example visual content generation system as mightbe used to generate imagery in the form of still images and/or videosequences of images.

FIG. 7 is a block diagram illustrating an example computer system uponwhich computer systems of the systems illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 6 maybe implemented.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following description, various embodiments will be described. Forpurposes of explanation, specific configurations and details are setforth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments.However, it will also be apparent to one skilled in the art that theembodiments may be practiced without the specific details. Furthermore,well-known features may be omitted or simplified in order not to obscurethe embodiment being described.

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a data flow through a system 100 when the system100 is generating values of combustion properties 110 (e.g., which maybe stored in one or more data structures). The values of the combustionproperties 110 are supplied to a process or system (e.g., an imagegenerator 130, which might be used by itself or as a part of a systemshown in FIG. 6). The methods here may be used by a process or system tocreate visual representations of simulated combustion or for otherpurposes. For ease of illustration, in FIG. 1, the values of thecombustion properties 110 are illustrated as being supplied to an imagegenerator 130 that uses the values for combustion properties 110 tocreate visual representations of simulated combustion.

In the physical world, combustion combines combustion reactants andproduces combustion products and heat (and optionally light in the formof photons). The combustion reactants may include oxygen and fuelmolecules (e.g., hydrocarbons), which are broken down by the combustioninto the combustion products. The combustion products may be molecules(e.g., water and carbon dioxide). Depending upon the type of combustion,both the combustion reactants and the combustion products may be gases.

Because combustion is a process, combustion is typically simulated overa combustion duration and its parameter values are calculatedperiodically (e.g., at discrete times). Thus, at least some of thevalues of combustion properties 110 may include series of values, with avalue corresponding to a different timestamp occurring during thecombustion duration. An amount of time between a pair of successivetimestamps will be referred to as a time step. While the time steps maybe uniform in some examples, that might not necessarily be the case forall embodiments.

Components (e.g., liquids, solids, and/or gases) of a combustionsimulation may be divided into a plurality of simulated objects (e.g.,particles) and the properties of the simulated objects may be determinedfor each timestamp during the combustion duration. The simulated objectsmay be three-dimensional (“3D”) and/or positioned within a 3D space. Forexample, the simulated objects may correspond to voxels within a 3Dvisualization. The values of combustion properties 110 may include thevalues of the properties of the simulated objects. By way ofnon-limiting examples, the properties of the simulated objects mayinclude divergence (described below), temperature, location, andcomposition (e.g., fuel, oxygen, nitrogen, soot, carbon dioxide, water,and the like).

As illustrated in FIG. 1, the system 100 includes a combustionsimulation system 120 and at least one client computing device 140operated by at least one human artist 142. The combustion simulationsystem 120 may be implemented by software executing on one or morecomputer systems (e.g., each like a computer system 700 illustrated inFIG. 7).

Combustion has been studied and simulated for engineering and scientificpurposes, such as for the purposes of propelling vehicles (e.g., spacecraft and rockets). Generally, such studies and simulations areconcerned with changes occurring over short periods of time (e.g., onthe order of a few microseconds). On the other hand, some computergraphics applications are concerned only with the appearance ofcombustion. Therefore, for such computer graphics applications, thecombustion simulation system 120 is configured to generate a simplifiedcombustion simulation that includes enough scientific calculations togenerate a realistic looking combustion simulation but may employ modelsof various levels of accuracy of the physical and/or chemical reactions.The combustion simulation system 120 may also be configured to simulatecombustion using a larger time step size than is typically used inengineering and scientific applications.

In some computer graphics applications, the combustion simulation system120 can be configured to optimize computing efficiency by minimizingcomputational cycles to obtain the appearance of the combustion withoutincluding enough scientific calculations that would otherwise requirefor real world physical and/or chemical reactions, such as, for example,during simulation of a combustion reaction for a rocket thrustor. Inother words, the combustion simulation system 120 is capable of reducingthe number of parameters or variables, including for example, the numberof byproducts, in the simulation to obtain an appearance of a combustionto produce a graphical representation of the combustion, rather thanformulating detail calculations required, for example, for finiteelement simulation of the physical, chemical, thermodynamics and/orkinetics between the reactants and products of a combustion. In anon-limiting example, the combustion simulation system 120 can beconfigured so that the simulation produces the desired color of a flame(i.e., the appearance of the combustion), rather than determining thetemperature that the combustion has to reach in order to produce thedesired temperature color, and the various calculations ofthermochemical reaction phenomena between reactants and products thatwould need to be detailed in order to produce the desired flame color.

The combustion simulation system 120 is configured to receive combustiondata 150 and user-defined parameter values 154 as input, and isconfigured to output the values of the combustion properties 110. Thecombustion data 150 and/or the user-defined parameter values 154 may bestored by the combustion simulation system 120 and/or another device(e.g., a data storage) connected to the combustion simulation system120. It should be understood that various elements being operated on,such as the values of the combustion properties 110, are stored as datathat can be written to computer memory, read from computer memory, andtransmitted between computer processes and/or components.

The combustion simulation system 120 may be characterized asimplementing a plurality of solvers that interact with one another. Forexample, some of the solvers may each calculate a series of parametervalues wherein each value in the series corresponds to a differentdiscrete time value (or timestamp). In this manner, the series ofparameter values represents how the parameter value changes over timeduring a combustion event. The solvers may be strongly or looselycoupled together so that different simulations may feed values to oneanother. In other words, different simulations may be executedsimultaneously and, as the simulations step through time, thesimulations may exchange parameter values (e.g., force values). Thesimulations may be configured to perform operator splitting, which meansa solution for an original equation is obtained by splitting theoriginal equation into multiple parts, solving each part separately, andcombining the solutions.

The plurality of solvers implemented by the combustion simulation system120 may be characterized as including a physics module 160, athermodynamics module 162, and a chemistry module 164. However, thisfunctionality need not be divided into multiple modules. Together, thephysics module 160, the thermodynamics module 162, and the chemistrymodule 164 may be characterized as being a combustion model 170. Thephysics module 160 determines how parts (e.g., gases, fuel, soot, etc.)move during the simulated combustion. Thus, the physics module 160 mayimplement fluid mechanics. The thermodynamics module 162 determines howheat is transferred during the simulated combustion, which helpsdetermine changes in temperature over time. The chemistry module 164 mayimplement an adiabatic flame model that helps determine the temperatureobtained by the simulated combustion event. Temperature is generallyused by the visual content generation system 600 (see FIG. 6) todetermine color within the rendered image or for other uses.

The combustion parameter values 154 may include any parameters that willaffect the appearance of a combustion event. By way of non-limitingexamples, the combustion parameter values 154 may include an identifierof one or more combustion fuels, an amount of fuel, an atmosphericcomposition, an initial temperature, a constant thermodynamic pressure,and the like.

As described below, the visual content generation system 600 (see FIG.6) is configured to receive the values of the combustion properties 110as input, and is configured to output one or more static images and/orone or more animated videos. The static image(s) and/or the animatedvideo(s) include one or more visual representations of combustioncreated based at least in part on the values of the combustionproperties 110. The visual content generation system may transmit thestatic image(s) and/or the animated video(s) to the client computingdevice 140 for display to the artist 142. The artist 142 may use thestatic image(s) and/or the animated video(s) to view the visualrepresentations of the combustion and make adjustments to the combustionparameter values 154. Then, the combustion simulation system 120 mayoutput new values of the combustion properties 110, which the visualcontent generation system may use to output new versions of the staticimage(s) and/or the animated video(s) that may be viewed by the artist142 on the client computing device 140. This process may be repeateduntil the artist 142 is satisfied with the appearance of the combustionin the static image(s) and/or the animated video(s).

As mentioned above, the client computing device 140 is configured tocommunicate with the combustion simulation system 120. The artist 142may use the client computing device 140 to specify the combustionparameter values 154 to the combustion simulation system 120.Optionally, the combustion simulation system 120 may be configured todisplay the values of the combustion properties 110 and/or a simulationbased at least in part on the values of the combustion properties 110 tothe artist 142 on the client computing device 140 so that the artist 142may adjust the combustion parameter values 154 as desired before thevalues of the combustion properties 110 are input into the visualcontent generation system. As mentioned above, the client computingdevice 140 is configured to receive the static image(s) and/or theanimated video(s) and display the static image(s) and/or the animatedvideo(s) to the artist 142 so that the artist 142 may adjust thecombustion parameter values 154. The client computing device 140 may beimplemented using the computer system 700 illustrated in FIG. 7.

The combustion model 170 may be characterized as being an alternativecomputational model for combustion that is faithful to the processes ofcombustion and configured to satisfy the turnaround times required forcomputer graphics applications. The particular values for the combustionparameter values 154 might be based on actual physically realizablecombustion components, such as physical gases. However, an artist mightselect and input values that do not necessarily correspond to physicallyrealizable combustion but nonetheless result in a desirable simulationand possible visual appearance in rendered imagery that the artist istargeting.

Fluid Dynamics of Combustion

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluid behavior (e.g., liquids and gases)at rest and in motion. The physics module 160 uses fluid mechanicsequations to determine how each of the components of the combustionsimulation (e.g., represented as simulated objects) moves during thesimulated combustion event. The physics module 160 may determine aposition for each simulated object for each discrete time period (e.g.,timestamp) during the simulated combustion event.

Fluid mechanics is governed by Navier-Stokes equations that are derivedfrom three fundamental laws, namely, conservation of linear momentum,conservation of mass, and conservation of energy. Traditionally, thefield of computer graphics assumes that a fluid flow is incompressible.This assumption decouples the energy equation from the other twoequations and more importantly leads to a time-independentboundary-value problem (elliptic partial differential equation (“PDE”))for pressure, in lieu of a time-dependent initial value problem thatpropagates pressure at the speed of sound in a compressible fluid.

While no fluid is truly incompressible, it is a common assumption formost fluid applications in computer graphics, like modeling water,smoke, and the like. However, combustion is a notable exception because,the significant temperature changes caused by the chemical reactionsresult in very pronounced local pressure and density changes.Additionally, most combustion events break large fuel molecules (e.g.,hydrocarbons) into many smaller product molecules (e.g., water andcarbon dioxide) which can also cause the fluid to expand, contradictingthe notion of an incompressible fluid. Thus, an accurate way to modelcombustion is through general compressible Navier-Stokes equations thatallow for sharp changes in density and pressure (shocks) that propagateat an acoustic speed of the fluid.

As mentioned above, the Navier-Stokes equations are derived from theconservation of linear momentum, conservation of mass, and conservationof energy.

Conservation of Momentum

Equation 1 below is the Navier-Stokes equation for a Newtonian fluid,which is derived from conservation of linear momentum (or Newton'ssecond law applied to fluids), also known as the Navier-Stokes MomentumEquation.

$\begin{matrix}{{\rho\left( {\frac{\partial\overset{\rightarrow}{u}}{\partial t} + {\overset{\rightarrow}{u} \cdot {\nabla\overset{\rightarrow}{u}}}} \right)} = {{- {\nabla P_{mech}}} + {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{g}} + {\mu{\nabla^{2}\overset{\rightarrow}{u}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 1} \right)\end{matrix}$

In Equation 1 above, a variable “{right arrow over (u)}” represents avelocity vector of a moving fluid (e.g., measured in meters per second“m/s”), a variable “t” represents time (e.g., measured in seconds “s”),a variable “ρ” represents density (e.g., measured in kilograms per metercubed “kg/m³”), a variable “P_(mech)” represents mechanical pressure(e.g., measured in Newtons per meter squared “N/m²”), a variable “{rightarrow over (g)}” represents a gravity vector (e.g., measured in NewtonsN), and a variable “μ” represents dynamic viscosity (e.g., measured inkilograms per meter second “kg/(ms)”).

A computer graphics system used to generate realistic imagery, such asimages and video frames, might be programmed to compute values using theNavier-Stokes Momentum Equation with artist-selected input values anduse those computed values to simulate combustion and determine pixelvalues, such as pixel color values, for imagery created to depict suchcombustion. In some embodiments, computer resources, such ascomputational cycles, are at a premium and therefore efficientcomputational processes for computing results of the Navier-StokesMomentum Equation and other equations described herein might beimportant.

In the Navier-Stokes Momentum Equation, the variable “P_(mech)”represents mechanical pressure and is defined as total force acting on aunit area. The mechanical pressure is normally indistinguishable fromthermodynamic pressure, represented by a variable “P_(therm)” below.However, compressible fluids are notable exceptions. In Equation 1, anexpression

$``\frac{\partial_{\overset{\rightarrow}{u}}}{\partial t}"$

denotes local acceleration of the fluid, an expression “{right arrowover (u)}·∇{right arrow over (u)}” describes self-advection (e.g.,hyperbolic transport by itself), an expression “∇P_(mech)” representsforce caused by mechanical pressure differences (e.g., internal force),an expression “p{right arrow over (g)}” represents force caused bygravitational pull on mass (e.g., external force), and an expression“μ∇²{right arrow over (u)}” represents drag due to viscosity, (e.g.,parabolic diffusion of velocity). This set of three (Cartesian axis)coupled PDEs is shared with traditional incompressible fluid models incomputer graphics and there are several well-established techniques tosolve Equation 1 (e.g., stable fluids or FLIP).

Conservation of Mass

This section explains how a derivation that leads to an approximation ofincompressible flows, and explains where and why assumingincompressibility fails for combustion simulations, and this can be usedto optimize a computer process that is simulating combustion forvisualization purposes.

A modified elliptic PDE is provided that more correctly accounts forrapid and local release of chemical energy, which is arguably afundamental characteristic of combustion. Equation 2 calculates a massflow rate (represented by an expression

$\left. {``\frac{dM}{dt}"} \right)$

through a small closed regular surface represented by a variable “∂Ω.”Referring to Equation 2 below, the surface represented by the variable“∂Ω” encloses a volume represented by a variable “Ω” (e.g., a voxel andits six faces). A material with a local density represented by thevariable “ρ” is transported (e.g., moves) with a local velocity vectorrepresented by the variable “{right arrow over (u)}.” A variable “{rightarrow over (n)}” represents an outward facing surface normal of thesurface represented by the variable “∂Ω.” Equation 2 calculates a totalamount of mass passing though the surface per unit time caused by localflux of mass represented by an expression “{right arrow over (J)}_(m)”which equals the local density multiplied by the local velocity vector(which is represented in Equation 2 by an expression “ρ{right arrow over(u)}”).

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{dM}{dt} = {{- {\oint_{\partial\Omega}{{\overset{\rightarrow}{n} \cdot {\overset{\rightarrow}{J}}_{m}}dS}}} = {- {\oint_{\partial\Omega}{{\overset{\rightarrow}{n} \cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}dS}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 2} \right)\end{matrix}$

Referring to Equation 3 below, according to the (classical) law ofconservation of mass, the mass flow rate represented by the expression

$``\frac{dM}{dt}"$

is equal to a total change of material per unit time in the enclosingvolume (represented by the variable “Ω”), because the enclosing volume(represented by the variable “Ω”) and volume element (represented by anexpression “dV”) are independent of time.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{dM}{dt} = {{\frac{d}{dt}{\int_{\Omega}{\rho dV}}} = {\int_{\Omega}{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}dV}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 3} \right)\end{matrix}$

Subtracting Equation 2 from Equation 3 leads to a fundamental relationrepresented by Equation 4 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{{\int_{\Omega}{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}dV}} + {\oint_{\partial\Omega}{{\overset{\rightarrow}{n} \cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}dS}}} = 0} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 4} \right)\end{matrix}$

Applying the divergence theorem to the second term of Equation 4 yieldsEquation 5 below.

$\begin{matrix}{{\int_{\Omega}{\left( {\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} \right)dV}} = 0} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 5} \right)\end{matrix}$

Because Equation 5 is true for any enclosing volume (represented by thevariable “Ω”), applying the product rule to a term “∇·(ρ{right arrowover (u)})” of Equation 5, yields Equation 6. Equation 6 may becharacterized as being a fundamental equation referred to as acontinuity equation that holds true for both compressible fluid flowsand incompressible fluid flows.

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} = {{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\overset{\rightarrow}{u} \cdot {\nabla\rho}} + {\rho{\nabla{\cdot \overset{\rightarrow}{u}}}}} = 0}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 6} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equation 7 and Equation 8 involve an infinitesimal fluid particle withdensity (represented by the variable “ρ”) at time (represented by thevariable “t”), traveling along a trajectory (or streamline of the flow)represented by an expression “{right arrow over (x)}(t).” The expression“{right arrow over (x)}(t)” is obtained from a definition

$``{\frac{d\overset{\rightarrow}{x}}{ct} \equiv {\overset{\rightarrow}{u}.}}"$

Mathematically, this implies that density (represented by the variable“ρ”) can be represented by a function “ρ({right arrow over (x)}(t), t)”with bold explicit and implicit time-dependencies. Using the chain rule,the function “ρ({right arrow over (x)}(t), t)” can be used to derive amaterial (or total) derivative with respect to time, which is shown inEquation 8.

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{D\rho}{Dt} \equiv \frac{d\;{\rho\left( {{\overset{\rightarrow}{x}(t)},t} \right)}}{dt}} = {\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\frac{dx}{dt}\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial x}} + {\frac{dy}{dt}\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial y}} + {\frac{dz}{dt}\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial z}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 7} \right) \\{= {\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\overset{\rightarrow}{u} \cdot {\nabla\rho}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 8} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equation 8 can be substituted onto Equation 6 above to create Equation9, which is an alternative formulation of the continuity equation.

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{D\rho}{Dt} + {\rho{\nabla{\cdot \overset{\rightarrow}{u}}}}} = 0} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 9} \right)\end{matrix}$

By definition, a flow is incompressible when the total derivative (withrespect to time) of the density is zero, which can be expressed as

$``{\frac{D\;\rho}{Dt} = 0.}"$

Thus, for an incompressible flow, ρ∇·{right arrow over (u)}=0. Equation10 below may be derived when ρ>0. Equation 10 applies if and only if aflow is incompressible, meaning the flow has a flow field that isdivergence free.

∇·{right arrow over (u)}=0   (Eqn. 10)

If this constraint is applied to the velocity of Equation 6 (thecontinuity equation), Equation 11 may be obtained. Equation 11 may becharacterized as being a transport equation for density in anincompressible flow, which is consistent with setting Equation 8 equalto zero. Thus, Equation 11 may be characterized as expressing theevolution of the density in an incompressible flow.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} = {{- \overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \cdot {\nabla\rho}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 11} \right)\end{matrix}$

As an even stricter assumption, the fluid itself (in addition to itsflow) may be assumed to be incompressible, which by definition impliesthat the density of the fluid is constant both with respect to time andspace. In other words,

$\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} = 0$

and ∇ρ=0. Inserting this assumption into Equation 6 leads to the samecondition for the flow field, namely Equation 10. A flow can beincompressible,

${\frac{D\rho}{Dt} = 0},$

while the fluid is compressible. But, an incompressible fluid alwaysimplies that the flow is also incompressible. This is an important yetsubtle and often overlooked detail in computer graphics literature onfluid animation, where the terms incompressible flow and incompressiblefluid are typically used interchangeably. The justification is that, incomputer graphics, the density is often assumed to be constant, whichimplies that both the fluid and the flow are incompressible. But, in thecase of combustion simulation, the density varies due to the chemicalreaction, so it is important to consider that the fluid beingcompressible alone does not necessarily imply that the flow is alsocompressible. That is, variable density fluids can still be governed byincompressible flows, which is exactly the reason why most existingcombustion models in computer graphics assume flows are incompressible.

However, the fluid mechanics of combustion is inherently compressible,not merely because the density varies, but due to the way that it varies

$\frac{D\rho}{Dt} \neq {0.}$

For example, Equation 12 is an equation of state of ideal gases andestablishes a simple relationship between the following state variables:thermodynamic pressure (represented by the variable “P_(therm)”), volume(represented by the variable “V”), and the absolute temperature(represented by the variable “T” and measured in Kelvin). Additionally,in Equation 12, a variable “n” represents a number of moles and avariable “R” represents an ideal gas constant (8.314 joules per moleKelvin (“J/molK”)).

P_(therm)V=nRT   (Eqn. 12)

As mentioned above, the thermodynamic pressure (represented by thevariable “P_(therm)”) is generally different from the mechanicalpressure (represented by the variable “P_(mech)”), which appears inEquation 1 (the Navier-Stokes Momentum Equation). Formally, therelationship between the thermodynamic pressure and the mechanicalpressure is expressed in Equation 13 below. In Equation 13, a variable“γ” is a material property of the fluid called an expansion (or bulk)viscosity and has a value that is greater than or equal to zero.

P _(mech) =P _(therm) −γ∇·{right arrow over (u)}  (Eqn. 13)

In most cases, the value of the variable “γ” is small enough that thethermodynamic and mechanical pressures are identical. Obviously, forincompressible flows, the thermodynamic and mechanical pressures areexactly equal because ∇·{right arrow over (u)}=0. But, as mentionedearlier, combustion is a notable exception. However, this will notcomplicate the combustion model 170 if combustion is limited tooccurring in open air, which implies that the thermodynamic pressure isfixed to atmospheric pressure (or approximately 1 atmosphere (“atm”)).Unless indicated otherwise, the remainder of this description assumesthat combustion takes place at a constant thermodynamic pressure, whichis a very common assumption in chemistry, fundamentally satisfied bymost laboratory experiments performed in open air. Equation 14 below, isa rewritten version of the ideal gas law. In Equation 14 below, avariable “m” represents mass and a variable “M” represents molar mass.The density (represented by the variable “ρ”) is defined by anexpression “m/V” and the number of moles (represented by the variable“n”) is defined by an expression m/M.

$\begin{matrix}{{\rho \equiv \frac{m}{V}} = {\frac{mP_{{ther}m}}{nRT} = \frac{P_{{ther}m}M}{RT}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 14} \right)\end{matrix}$

Note that Equation 14 assumes that the absolute temperature (representedby the variable “T” and measured in Kelvin) is greater than zero. Theideal gas law is most accurate for (monatomic) gases at hightemperatures and low pressures. The ideal gas law states that thedensity of a gas at constant thermodynamic pressure is inverselyproportional to the absolute temperature. Calculating the totalderivative with respect to time yields Equation 15.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{D\rho}{Dt} = {\frac{P_{{ther}m}}{RT}\left( {\frac{DM}{Dt} - {\frac{M}{T}\frac{DT}{Dt}}} \right)}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 15} \right)\end{matrix}$

Combining Equation 15 with Equation 8 yields Equation 16.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} = {{{- {\nabla\rho}} \cdot \overset{\rightarrow}{u}} + {\frac{P_{{ther}m}}{RT}\left( {\frac{DM}{Dt} - {\frac{M}{T}\frac{DT}{Dt}}} \right)}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 16} \right)\end{matrix}$

In Equation 16, a first term “−∇ρ·{right arrow over (u)}” accounts foradvection, which is the transport of the density (represented by thevariable “ρ”) by the velocity field (represented by the variable “{rightarrow over (u)}”). A second term

$``{\frac{P_{{ther}m}}{RT}\left( {\frac{DM}{Dt} - {\frac{M}{T}\frac{DT}{Dt}}} \right)}"$

in Equation 16 accounts for the fact that, under constant thermodynamicpressure, the density increases when the molar mass of the moving fluidincreases and the density decreases when the temperature of the movingfluid increases. Note, however, that the rate of change of the densitydecreases with rising temperature. More precisely, the proportionalityfactor for the rate of the density change caused by a change of molarmass depends on an expression “T⁻¹” whereas the proportionality factorvaries as an expression “T⁻²” caused by absolute temperature changes. Inother words, the effect of temperature changes diminishes faster thanthe effect of changes in molar mass (e.g., changing mass of molecules asthe molecules transition from reactants to products). As illustrated bycontrasting Equation 16 with the transport equation represented byEquation 11 for incompressible flows, the combustion model 170 accountsfor the combined effects of changing temperatures and changing molecularmasses. Equation 9 and Equation 15 may be combined into Equation 17below, which is an elliptic PDE for the flow field.

$\begin{matrix}{{\nabla{\cdot \overset{\rightarrow}{u}}} = {\frac{P_{{ther}m}}{\rho RT}\left( {{\frac{M}{T}\frac{DT}{Dt}} - \frac{DM}{Dt}} \right)}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 17} \right)\end{matrix}$

As mentioned above, an expression “∇·{right arrow over (u)}” is thedivergence. In Equation 17, an expression

$``\frac{DT}{Dt}"$

represents the temperatures of the moving fluids and an expression

$``\frac{DM}{Dt}"$

represents the molar mass of the moving fluids. Thus, in regions withincreasing temperatures of moving fluids (where the expression

$``\frac{DT}{Dt}"$

is greater man zero), or decreasing molar mass (where the expression

$``\frac{DM}{Dt}"$

is less than zero), the divergence of the velocity field is positive (or∇·{right arrow over (u)}=0), corresponding to an expansion. Conversely,regions with decreasing temperatures (e.g., due to cooling of products)or increasing molar mass (e.g., due to the formation of heaviermolecules), the divergence is negative (or ∇·{right arrow over (u)}<0),corresponding to local compression or contraction. Finally, in regionswith no temperature and molar mass changes (e.g., ambient air or fuelfar from regions of combustion), the flow is incompressible (or ∇·{rightarrow over (u)}=0). In other words, if the material derivative of thetemperature and molar mass is equal to zero (or

$\left. {\frac{DT}{Dt} = {\frac{DM}{Dt} = 0}} \right),$

the material derivative of the density is also equal to zero. Thus, theflow is by definition incompressible and divergence free. In otherwords, if the cause of temperature or molar mass changes is onlymaterial transport (or hyperbolic advection), the cause of the change ofdensity is also only material transport (or hyperbolic advection) andthe flow remains incompressible. However, during combustion, bothtemperature and molar mass change due to several different processesother than just simple material transport. Before deriving expressionsfor

${\frac{DM}{Dt}\mspace{14mu}{and}\mspace{14mu}\frac{DT}{Dt}},$

a description of some fundamentals of thermodynamics as well as thechemistry of combustion is provided, as might be used in a computersystem that simulates combustion and related processes. In some aspects,ideal simulations for modeling materials, designing equipment,determining safety, and/or other processes might require a certain levelof detail, and for computer graphics purposes, simplified (or morecomplex) operations might be used instead, where such operations provideacceptable graphics outputs.

Some Fundamentals of Thermodynamics as Might be Used for GraphicsSimulations

As mentioned above, the thermodynamics module 162 determines how heat istransferred during the simulated combustion, which helps determinechanges in temperature over time. The thermodynamics module 162 usesthermodynamics equations to help determine the temperature of thecomponents of the combustion simulation (e.g., represented as simulatedobjects) during the simulated combustion event. The thermodynamicsmodule 162 may help determine the temperature of each simulated objectfor each discrete time period (e.g., timestamp) during the simulatedcombustion event.

Combustion might be simulated as being governed both by chemicalkinetics and thermochemistry of an underlying reaction that convertsfuel and oxidizer into combustion products. Accurately modeling chemicalkinetics of combustion reactions may be too complex for many computergraphics applications (e.g., involving numerous chemical reactions andsub-species). Instead, these reactions may be simplified (e.g., asexplained in a Chemistry of Combustion section below) and it may beassumed that the reactions continue to completion. The effects ofchemical equilibrium may be ignored.

Internal Energy

According to the first law of thermodynamics, a change of internalenergy (represented by an expression “ΔU”) in a closed system is a sumof heat (represented by a variable “Q”) added to the closed system andan amount of work performed on the closed system. Traditionally this isexpressed as Equation 18.

ΔU=Q−W   (Eqn. 18)

In Equation 18, a variable “W” represents work performed by the closedsystem on its surroundings. In other words, the variable “W” representsenergy used by the closed system to perform mechanical work, such ascompressing or expanding its volume. Heat (represented by the variable“Q”) is energy added to the closed system, which is not mechanical. Inother words, the variable “Q” represents thermal energy caused bytemperature differences between the closed system and its surroundings.While neither the work nor the heat are state functions because theydepend on the path versus final and initial states taken by the closedsystem, the internal energy is a state function.

Enthalpy

A variable “H” represents enthalpy, which is defined by Equation 19below. In Equation 19, a variable “U” represents the internal energy,the variable “P_(therm)” represents the thermodynamic pressure, and avariable “V” represents a volume of the closed system.

H≡U+P_(therm)V   (Eqn. 19)

Given Equation 18 above, which is the first law of thermodynamics, achange of enthalpy (represented by an expression “ΔH”) may be expressedby Equation 20.

ΔH=ΔU+Δ(P _(therm) V)=Q−W+Δ(P _(therm) V)   (Eqn. 20)

As mentioned above, the thermodynamic pressure (represented by thevariable “P_(therm)”) is assumed to be constant, which implies that thework (represented by the variable “W”) is limited to volume change. Inother words, W=P_(therm)ΔV. Thus, Equation 20 above may be simplified toEquation 21 below. The work described by an expression “P_(therm)ΔV” isreferred to herein as “PV-work.”

ΔH=Q   (Eqn. 21)

In other words, for a closed system, at constant thermodynamic pressure,the enthalpy change equals energy transferred from the environmentthrough heat transfer (or work other than PV-work).

An adiabatic process is defined as a process in which a closed systemdoes not exchange any heat with its surroundings. In other words, thevalue of the variable “Q” equals zero for an adiabatic process.Therefore, Equation 21 above reduces to Equation 22 below for anadiabatic process under constant pressure (isobaric).

ΔH=0   (Eqn. 22)

Thus, enthalpy is preserved (or equals zero) for any thermodynamicprocess of a close system, which is both adiabatic and isobaric. Asmentioned above, the combustion model 170 models combustion events inopen air, which has a constant atmospheric thermodynamic pressure. Thecombustion model 170 models reactions assumed to be so fast that no heatis exchanged with the surroundings. Thus, only work is volume change(s)performed at constant thermo-dynamic pressure. This assumption is notvalid for combustion occurring inside a closed chamber, like mostcombustion engines. However, it is a reasonable assumption fordeflagrations in open air, but not detonations that are accompanied byshock waves. Shock waves can require modeling of acoustic pressurepropagation and in some embodiments, combustion model 170 can be usedfor combustion events simulated as occurring in open air and mightexclude those combustion events that have significant acoustic pressurepropagation components.

Heat Capacity

Combustion may be characterized as being driven by two processes,namely, the release of heat and transfer of heat. Both of theseprocesses manifest in temperature changes throughout the fluid. Inthermodynamics, the amount of heat, required to increase the temperatureof one kilogram of a substance by one Kelvin is referred to as aspecific heat capacity. In Equation 23 below, the specific heat capacityis represented by a variable “C.” As mentioned above, heat isrepresented by the variable “Q.” If a number of joules of heat isrequired to change the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by aparticular amount (represented by the expression “ΔT”), the specificheat capacity is equal to an expression

$``{C = {\frac{Q}{\Delta T}.}}"$

Equation 21 states ΔH=Q. Thus, under the assumption of PV-work only, thespecific heat capacity at constant thermodynamic pressure (representedby a variable “C_(P)”) may be expressed in terms of enthalpy by anexpression

$``{C_{P} = {\frac{\Delta H}{\Delta T}.}}"$

The expression

$``{C_{P} = \frac{\Delta H}{\Delta T}}"$

may be expressed in differential form as Equation 23.

$\begin{matrix}{C_{p} = \left( \frac{\partial H}{\partial T} \right)_{P}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 23} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equation 23 may be particularly useful for combustion because combustiontypically satisfies these assumptions and since enthalpy, unlike heat,is in fact a state variable. Equation 23 can be rewritten indifferential form as an expression “dH=C_(P)dT,” which may be written inintegral form as Equation 24. In Equation 24, a variable “H₁” representsan initial enthalpy and a variable “H₂” represents a final enthalpy.

∫_(H) ₁ ^(H) ² dH=H ₂ −H ₁ ≡ΔH=∫ _(T) ₁ ^(T) ² C _(P) dT   (Eqn. 24)

In Equation 24, an initial state has an initial temperature (representedby a variable “T₁”) and a final state has a final temperature(represented by a variable “T₂”). This leads to an important relationexpressed in Equation 25 below.

H ₂ =H ₁+∫_(T) ₁ ^(T) ² C _(P) dT   (Eqn. 25)

A term “∫_(T) ₁ ^(T) ² C_(P)dT” in Equation 25 is referred to as athermal or sensible enthalpy, which distinguishes the term “∫_(T) ₁ ^(T)² C_(P)dT” from other types of enthalpy related to the chemistry ofcombustion.

The specific heat capacity at constant thermodynamic pressure(represented by the variable “C_(P)”) typically varies with temperatureso Equation 26 is a common Taylor-series approximation of the specificheat capacity at constant thermodynamic pressure.

C _(P)(T)=α+βT+γT ²   (Eqn. 26)

Equation 26 can be substituted into Equation 25 to create Equation 27below.

$\begin{matrix}{H_{2} = {H_{1} + {\alpha\left( {T_{2} - T_{1}} \right)} + {\frac{\beta}{2}\left( {T_{2}^{2} - T_{1}^{2}} \right)} + {\frac{\gamma}{3}\left( {T_{2}^{3} - T_{1}^{3}} \right)}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 27} \right)\end{matrix}$

The polynomial coefficients α, β, and γ may be obtained from tables(and/or included in the combustion data 150) for the chemicalcomponents. Further, the initial temperature (represented by a variable“T₁”) is known for most combustion events. So, if the initial and finalenthalpies (represented by the variables “H₁” and “H₂,” respectively)are also known, Equation 27 can be solved (numerically) for the finaltemperature (represented by the variable “T₂”).

At this point, Equation 19 has introduced the enthalpy state variable(variable “H”), which has been shown to correspond to heat when thethermodynamic pressure is fixed (see Equation 21), and consequently thatenthalpy is a conserved quantity for any adiabatic (no heat exchange)and isobaric process. This means enthalpy may be used to study the fastchemical reactions that occur during combustion when the thermodynamicpressure is constant. Finally, Equation 25 defines sensible (or thermal)enthalpy as the transfer of heat due to temperature differences(separate from the chemical reaction). However, there are other ways tointroduce heat into a system and, for combustion, they are related tochemical reactions, which will be discussed in the next section.

Chemistry of Combustion and Use in Computer Graphics

As mentioned above, the chemistry module 164 may implement an adiabaticflame model. The chemistry module 164 uses the adiabatic flame model todetermine the temperature obtained by the components of the combustionsimulation (e.g., represented as simulated objects) during the simulatedcombustion event. The chemistry module 164 may determine a temperaturefor each simulated object for each discrete time period (e.g.,timestamp) during the simulated combustion event. From thesedeterminations, a computer system can simulate combustion in sufficientdetail for use in generating computer-generated imagery.

In part, combustion can be modeled as fuel and an oxidizer (e.g., oxygenor oxygen-bearing molecules) reacting to form combustion outputs.Typically heat is also required, to initiate combustion to a state wherethe combustion provides enough output heat to continue the reactionuntil the fuel is consumed or the oxidizer is depleted. Combustion is achemical reaction wherein the heat involved is a significant factor inhow the reaction evolves. Combustion, once started, will end once thefuel is consumed, the oxidizer is depleted, or if sufficient heat isremoved to stop the combustion reaction, but can continue until fuel isconsumed and the oxidizer is depleted if the heat is not removed. Inpart, this is because combustion involves the release of heat (orenthalpy at constant pressure) due to the exothermic chemical reactionsthat turn cold fuel and oxidizer into hot products that heat upsurrounding fuel and oxidizer resulting in a chain reaction. Thisenthalpy of reaction and the enthalpy required to turn the products intotheir constituent elements being lower than that of the reactants,should be taken into account when simulating combustion. When simulatingcombustion for the purposes of depicting the simulated combustiongraphically, the fuel, oxidizer, and heat can be taken into account andaspects of those, or other details, can be ignored—thus potentiallysaving computational effort—if those details do not affect thevisualization in graphical depictions involving that combustion.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a chemical reaction occurring duringcombustion. A top portion 200 of FIG. 2 illustrates methane combustionby means of the molecular structures of reactants and products. A bottomportion 210 of FIG. 2 illustrates a stoichiometric reaction of thecombustion of methane. Specifically, FIG. 2 illustrates a complete, orstoichiometric, reaction between one unit of methane with two units ofoxygen to produce one unit of carbon dioxide and two units of water, allin a gaseous state. The actual chemical reaction is far morecomplicated, involving hundreds of sub-steps each with their own ratesof reaction, and is beyond the scope of most computer graphicsapplications. Instead, it is assumed a single reaction happensinstantaneously (so chemical kinetics can be ignored) and completely (sono equilibrium).

The reaction in FIG. 2 assumes that combustion takes place in pureoxygen. While this is a common mistake in computer graphics literature,in reality, most practical combustion events take place in atmosphericair, which is not pure oxygen. While this may seem irrelevant from theperspective of breaking and forming chemical bonds, it can have aprofound impact on physical processes like transfer of heat andmaterial, and can indirectly impact the chemistry by shifting thebalance of a perfectly balanced or stoichiometric, reaction. This canlead to phenomena like oxygen starvation and entirely different chemicalreactions that form new products, such as like soot, partially combustedfuel, and the like. To better account for these effects, in Equation 28,the atmospheric air is assumed to include 78.2% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,and other gases are ignored.

CH₄+2(O₂+3.76N₂)→CO₂+2(H₂O+3.76N₂)   (Eqn. 28)

Equation 28 includes a perfectly balanced ratio of methane and oxygenand produces what is referred to as complete combustion. If, instead, anexcess of oxidizer is present, the reaction may be represented byEquation 29. In Equation 29, a coefficient “α” has a value greater thantwo. Equation 29 produces what is referred to as fuel-lean combustion.

CH₄+α(O₂+3.76N₂)→CO₂+2H₂O+(α−2)O₂+3.76αN₂   (Eqn. 29)

If, instead, an excess of methane is present, the reaction may berepresented by Equation 30 below. In Equation 30, the coefficient “α”has a value greater than zero and less than two. Equation 30 produceswhat is referred to as fuel-rich combustion.

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{CH}_{4} + {\alpha\left( {O_{2} + {{3.7}6N_{2}}} \right)}}\rightarrow{{\frac{\alpha}{2}{CO}_{2}} + {{\alpha H}_{2}O} + {\left( {1 - \frac{\alpha}{2}} \right){CH}_{4}} + {{3.7}6{\alpha N}_{2}}} \right. & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 30} \right)\end{matrix}$

The coefficient “α” is closely tied to this specific reaction so it isoften convenient to introduce a different metric that is independent ofthe reaction. A fuel-to-oxidizer equivalence ratio (represented by avariable “λ”) is defined as an actual fuel-to-oxidizer ratio to thestoichiometric fuel-to-oxidizer ratio. When the value of the variable“λ” is greater than one, the reaction is fuel-rich or more fuel ispresent than required for complete combustion, regardless of the type offuel and oxidizer. Conversely, when the value of the variable “λ” isless than one, the mixture includes excess oxidizer. Thus, the term“rich” means excess fuel is present (the value of the variable “λ” isgreater than one), the term “stoichiometric” means a balanced ratio (thevalue of the variable “λ” equals one), and the term “lean” means excessoxidizer is present (the value of the variable “λ” is less than one).

While many different types of fuel exist, for the sake of brevity, thecombustion model 170 will be described with respect to fossil fuels,including linear alkanes (acyclic saturated hydrocarbons) having a form“C₂H_(2n+2).” Non-limiting examples of linear alkanes include naturalgases like methane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆) propane (C₃H₈), butane (C₄H₁₀),pentane (C₅H₁₂), hexane (C₆H₁₄), heptane (C₇H₁₆), and octane (C₈H₁₈).For example, stoichiometric combustion of C_(x)H_(y) in atmospheric airis described by Equation 31 below.

C_(n)H_(2n+2)+α_(n)(O₂+3.76N₂)→nCO₂+(n+1)H₂O+3.76α₂N₂   (Eqn. 31)

In Equation 31, a constant “α_(n)” expresses a number of oxygenmolecules required to completely combust one molecule of C_(n)H_(2n+2).The constant “α_(n)” is defined by Equation 32 below.

$\begin{matrix}{\alpha_{n} = \frac{{3n} + 1}{2}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 32} \right)\end{matrix}$

To further complicate matters, most combustion events in atmospheric airare not premixed. Instead pure fuel (e.g., C_(n)H_(2n+2)) interacts withatmospheric air and mixing takes place in a thin interface between fueland the atmospheric air. Such mixing is caused by diffusion and isreferred to as a diffusion flame. This can produce arbitrary fractionsof the fuel and oxidizer, which, in general, has to be estimated beforethe reaction can be deduced. Thus, in general, concentrations of atleast fuel (e.g., C_(n)H_(2n+2)), oxidizer (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), water(H₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) must be tracked. If the ratio ofavailable oxygen molecules to fuel molecules is larger than the value ofthe expression

$``{\frac{{3n} + 1}{2},}"$

the combustion is fuel-lean. On the other hand, if the ratio ofavailable oxygen molecules to fuel molecules is smaller than the valueof the expression

$``{{\frac{{3n} + 1}{2},}"}$

the combustion is fuel-rich. Additionally, if the ratio of availableoxygen molecules to fuel molecules is equal to the value of theexpression

$``{\frac{{3n} + 1}{2},}"$

the combustion is stoichiometric. Temporarily ignoring the nitrogen(N₂), because it is neither consumed nor produce, these three cases arerepresented schematically in FIG. 3.

FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating combustion products obtained when acombustion, involving a combustion fuel (C_(n)H_(2n+2)), is fuel-lean,stoichiometric, and fuel-rich with respect to oxygen in an atmosphere(αO₂). As illustrated in FIG. 3, the fuel-lean condition is met whenα>α_(n) for the combustion of C_(n)H_(2n+2)+αO₂. The combustion productsfor the fuel-lean condition are thus nCO₂+(n+1)H₂O+(α−α₂)O₂. For thestoichiometric condition of α=α_(n) for the combustion ofC_(n)H_(2n+2)+αO₂, the combustion products include nCO₂+(n+1)H₂O. Forthe fuel-rich condition of α<α_(n) for the combustion ofC_(n)H_(2n+2)+αO₂, the combustion products can be written as

${\frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{n}}{nCO}_{2}} + {\frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{n}}\left( {n + 1} \right)H_{2}O} + {\left( {1 - \frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{2}}} \right)C_{n}{H_{{2n} + 2}.}}$

The constant α_(n) is defined by Equation 32 as

${\alpha_{n} = \frac{{3n} + 1}{2}}.$

In Equation 33, the coefficient “α” represents the actual oxygen to fuelratio. Thus, the fuel-to-oxidizer equivalence ratio (represented by thevariable “λ”) for this reaction may be determined by Equation 33.

$\begin{matrix}{\gamma = {\frac{\alpha_{n}}{\alpha} = \frac{{3n} + 1}{2\alpha}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 33} \right)\end{matrix}$

If the thermodynamic and chemical properties of carbon dioxide (CO₂) andwater vapor (H₂O) are assumed to be the same (which is a reasonably goodapproximation), they can be combined into a single type of product,denoted “Prod.” This means one less chemical component needs to betracked and leads to a simpler diagram illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 4 is a version of the diagram of FIG. 3 that is simplified bycombining carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water vapor (H₂O) into a singleproduct labeled “Prod.” As illustrated in FIG. 4, the fuel-leancondition is met when α>α_(n) for the combustion of C_(n)H_(2n+2)+αO₂.The combustion products for the fuel-lean condition can be rewritten as(2n+1)Prod+(α−α₂)O₂. For the stoichiometric condition of α=α_(n) for thecombustion of C_(n)H_(2n+2)+αO₂, the combustion products can berewritten as (2n+1)Prod. For the fuel-rich condition of α<α_(n) for thecombustion of C_(n)H_(2n+2)+αO₂, the combustion products can be writtenas

${\frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{n}}\left( {{2n} + 1} \right){Prod}} + {\left( {1 - \frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{2}}} \right)C_{n}{H_{{2n} + 2}.}}$

A characteristic feature of non-premixed combustion of hydrocarbon fluid(e.g., diffusion flames) is the formation of soot, which is generallyagreed to occur within a temperature range of 1300 K to 1600 K. Whilethe chemistry and physics of soot formation in diffusion flames isexceedingly complex, it can be simplified. Equation 34 describesequilibrium. In Equation 34, an expression “K_(n) ^(θ)(T)” represents anequilibrium constant defined as a ratio of a concentration of soot tofuel.

$\begin{matrix}{C_{n}{H_{{2n} + 2}\overset{K_{n}^{\ominus}{(T)}}{\longleftrightarrow}{Soot}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 34} \right)\end{matrix}$

The equilibrium constant is assumed to be constant within thetemperature range of 1300 K to 1600 K and zero otherwise. The value ofthe equilibrium constant depends at least in part on the type of fueland may be available in a look-up-tables and/or included in thecombustion data 150 (see FIG. 1). The value of the equilibrium constantis notably zero for methane at all temperatures, because combustion ofthis type of fuel in a diffusion flame does not produce soot insignificant quantities.

Soot is small particles (typically 10-100 nanometers) with 3000-10000atomic mass units formed by a complex process of chemical reactions andcoagulation. Though these particles are technically solids, theparticles are small enough to be suspended and transported by the fluidflow. These hot soot particles are incandescent and emit acharacteristic yellow glow, which gives rise to the term “luminousflames” for the diffuse (or non-premixed) flames that form soot.Conversely, flames that do not form soot are called non-luminous flames.

During the formation of soot, typically interior to the flame-front, nooxidizer is present, but as the hot soot is ejected by buoyancy forces(caused by local density differences), the hot soot will invariablycross into regions (primarily at the flame tip) with oxidizer where thehot soot will react with the oxidizer to form products. Equation 35(crudely) models this reaction. In Equation 35, a parameter “β” scaleswith the size of the soot particles (or more precisely the number ofcarbon atoms per soot particle), and an expression “K_(soot) ^(θ)(T)” anrepresents a temperature dependent equilibrium constant that depends onthe fuel source and size of the flame.

$\begin{matrix}{{Soot} + {\beta\;{O_{2}\overset{K_{Soot}^{\ominus}{(T)}}{\longleftrightarrow}\beta}\mspace{11mu}{Prod}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 35} \right)\end{matrix}$

If all of the soot particles are oxidized, the flame is said to benon-sooting and otherwise the flame is referred to as sooting. In otherwords, even flames that are not accompanied by raising (or visible) sootmight still be producing soot internally and hence be luminous flames.Non-luminous flames are always non-sooting, and sooting flames arealways luminous flames.

When temperatures are high (typically around 2500K) products (e.g., H₂O)start to undergo chemical reactions themselves, that is the productsseparate or split into smaller molecules or atoms, a process that isreferred to as dissociation. For example, carbon dioxide may dissociateinto carbon monoxide (CO) and oxygen (O). To help reduce the number ofchemical species, the combustion model 170 may ignore dissociation.

The combustion model 170 may track the following five chemical species:C_(n)H_(2n+2), oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), Prod, and Soot. But, if thecombustion model 170 represents each species as molar fractions, thecombustion model 170 only needs to track four quantities because thefifth quantity can be derived or calculated from the other fourquantities because the sum of all of the molar fractions must be one. Inother words, the reduction in the number of quantities from five to fourcan enable a more efficient way to simulate the combustion modelapproximately, for example, by 20 percent, while keeping the sum of allof the molar fractions to be one. This can be accomplished, for example,by reducing the number of combustion products, as described above withrespect to FIG. 4. In such instances, the combustion products for thefuel-lean condition can be rewritten from nCO₂+(n+1)H₂O+(α−α₂)O₂ to(2n+1)Prod+(α−α₂)O₂. Similarly, the combustion products for thestoichiometric condition can be rewritten nCO₂+(n+1)H₂O to (2n+1)Prod.On the other hand, the combustion products for the fuel-rich conditioncan be rewritten from

${\frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{n}}{nCO}_{2}} + {\frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{n}}\left( {n + 1} \right)H_{2}O} + {\left( {1 - \frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{2}}} \right)C_{n}H_{{2n} + 2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}\frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{n}}\left( {{2n} + 1} \right)\mspace{14mu}{Prod}} + {\left( {1 - \frac{\alpha}{\alpha_{2}}} \right)C_{n}{H_{{2n} + 2}.}}$

By reducing the number of combustion byproducts, simulations can beperformed in few number of computing cycles compared to tracking allpossible chemical species or byproducts.

Referring to FIG. 2, as mentioned above, the fire-triangle 200 includesthe heat 240 that is required to ignite the combustion 210. Technically,this is referred to as activation energy needed to kick start aself-sustained chemical reaction and it is often quantified as theauto-ignition temperature. The auto-ignition temperature is the lowesttemperature at which combustion is initiated (given the presence of bothfuel and oxidizer). In Table 1 below, ignition temperatures are listedin both Celsius and kelvin for the eight first hydrocarbons of the form“C_(n)H_(2n+2)”. As a general rule, ignition temperatures decrease asthe size of the molecules increase. The auto-ignition temperatures shownin Table 1 may be included in the combustion data 150 (see FIG. 1).

TABLE 1 Auto-ignition temperatures for the first eight hydrocarbons NameMethane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane Octane Formula CH₄C₂H₆ C₃H₈ C₄H₁₀ C₅H₁₂ C₆H₁₄ C₇H₁₆ C₈H₁₈ Celsius 580° C. 515° C. 455° C.405° C. 260° C. 225° C. 215° C. 220° C. Kelvin 853 K 788 K 728 K 678 K533 K 498 K 488 K 493 K

Adiabatic Flame Temperature

At this point, a model for the chemical reaction of combustion has beenprovided along with a measure of heat at constant thermodynamic pressure(enthalpy, cf. Equation 21). The chemistry module 164 may use thisinformation to compute the temperature obtained by the simulatedcombustion event. As mentioned above, the combustion model 170 assumesconstant thermodynamic pressure in open air. Additionally, thecombustion model 170 assumes the chemical reaction of combustion happensvery fast (e.g., virtually instantaneously), which means the release ofchemical heat has no time to be exchanged (as thermal heat) with thesurroundings, resulting in an adiabatic isobaric combustion process. Asshown in Equation 22, this implies that the total enthalpy for thecombustion is conserved (or is zero). This enthalpy originates from thechemical reaction and is manifested as reactants at the initialtemperature transforming into products at the final temperature.Normally, the initial temperature of the reactants is known, so thechallenge is to compute the higher unknown final temperature of theproducts based on the conservation of energy, which for adiabaticisobaric combustion equals enthalpy. The higher unknown finaltemperature of the products for adiabatic isobaric combustion isreferred to as an adiabatic flame temperature.

Hess's law may be used to compute the adiabatic flame temperature.Hess's law states that a total change of enthalpy for a reaction isindependent of a number of steps or stages of the reaction. In otherwords, the total enthalpy is the same whether the reaction is completedin one step or includes multiple steps. This is a consequence ofenthalpy being a state variable, which means enthalpy is independent ofthe pathway from the reactants to the products of the chemical reaction.Combining Hess's law with the assumption of adiabatic isobariccombustion means that the total enthalpy change occurring in multiplesub-steps must remain zero. This is important because it allows changesof enthalpies for sub-steps to be measured and tabled at fixedconditions and later applied to reactions that take place underdifferent conditions. For example, changes of enthalpies for sub-stepsmay be included in the combustion data 150 (see FIG. 1).

FIG. 5 illustrates different types of enthalpy for stoichiometriccombustion of methane in air. Specifically, the diagram of FIG. 5 showsenthalpy changes for a chemical reaction at initial temperature(represented by the variable “T₁”), and final temperature (representedby the variable “T₂”). Both the initial and final temperatures aredifferent from a standard temperature (represented by the variable“T₀”). By way of a non-limiting example, the standard temperature may bea temperature (e.g., 298.15 K) at which enthalpy of formation(represented by an expression “ΔH_(formation) ^(θ)”) is known. Theenthalpy of formation is defined as an enthalpy change occurring duringthe formation of one mole of a substance from its constituent elementsat standard states (symbolized by θ).

By definition enthalpy is conserved for any adiabatic reaction atconstant thermodynamic pressure. Equation 36 expresses the enthalpy ofthe reaction (represented by an expression “ΔH_(reaction)^(θcombustion)”) as a difference between the enthalpy of formation forthe products (represented by an expression “ΔH_(formation)^(θproducts)”) and the enthalpy of formation for the reactants(represented by an expression “ΔH_(formation) ^(θreactants”).)

ΔH _(reaction) ^(θcombustion) =ΔH _(formation) ^(θproducts) −ΔH_(formation) ^(θreactants)   (Eqn. 36)

Equation 36 is represented by a cyclic connection of a lower triangle500 in FIG. 5. The cyclic connection represented by an upper rectangle510 in FIG. 5 can be express as Equation 37.

ΔH _(adiabatic) ^(combustion)=∫_(T) ₁ ^(T) ⁰ C _(P) ′dT+H _(reaction)^(θcombustion)+∫_(T) ₀ ^(T) ² C _(P) ″dT=0   (Eqn. 37)

Combining Equation 36 and Equation 37 leads to Equation 38 below.

ΔH _(adiabatic) ^(combustion)=∫_(T) ₁ ^(T) ⁰ C _(P) ′dT+ΔH _(formation)^(θproducts) −ΔH _(formation) ^(θreactants)+∫_(T) ₀ ^(T) ² C _(P) ″dT=0   (Eqn. 38)

Equation 38 is schematically represented as the cyclic connection of allfive stages in FIG. 5. Note that while nitrogen (N₂) has no effect onthe enthalpy of formation (or the enthalpy of reaction), nitrogen (N₂)does affect the sensible enthalpy (the two integrals over specific heatcapacity). In other words, the presence of nitrogen lowers the adiabaticflame temperature because heat is required to increase the temperatureof the adiabatic flame temperature. Because atmospheric air is made upof 78.2% nitrogen (and only 21% oxygen), nitrogen (N₂) can have asignificant effect on the actual temperature of a flame, which is whythe combustion model 170 accounts for nitrogen (N₂).

Enthalpy of formation for most chemicals is available in tables and maybe included in the combustion data 150 (see FIG. 1). Therefore, by usingpolynomial (or constant) approximations of the specific heat capacities(cf. Equation 27), Equation 38 can be solved for the final temperature(represented by the variable “T₂”) when the initial temperature(represented by the variable “T₁”) is known. The final temperature isreferred to as the adiabatic flame temperature.

Heat Transfer

While the adiabatic flame temperature is fixed (when the initialtemperature and the chemical reaction are known), surrounding gases thatare not undergoing chemical combustion are subject to various processesthat change the temperature locally. Simply stated, heat transfer can bedefined as a passage of thermal energy from a first (hotter) material toa second (colder) material. This “passage” occurs typically via threedistinct processes, namely, convection (or advection), conduction (ordiffusion), and radiation. Physically, convection corresponds to heat(or thermal energy) transfer due to material transport, conductioncorresponds to temperature differences of materials in contact, andradiation corresponds to electromagnetic emission and absorption.

Deriving the transport and diffusion equations are relativelystraightforward for incompressible fluids, but the combustion model 170explicitly allows for variable density (as well as temperature). Below,derivations of the heat transfer equation used by the combustion model170 are provided.

Convection

As a gas is being advected by a fluid velocity field, the temperature,which is a material property of the molecules of the gas, undergoes thesame transport. Equation 39 calculates a thermal energy (or heat) perunit volume (represented by a variable “Q_(den)”) contained in a fluidas a function of the density (represented by the variable “ρ”), anabsolute temperature (represented by the variable “T”), and the specificheat capacity at constant thermodynamic pressure (represented by thevariable “C_(P)”). The thermal energy (or heat) per unit volume issometimes referred to as a thermal energy density of the fluid.

Q_(den)=ρC_(P)T   (Eqn. 39)

Next, consider a small volume of fluid (represented by a variable “Ω”)with a surface area (represented by an expression “∂Ω”). The rate ofchange of thermal heat in the volume of fluid (represented by thevariable “Ω”) may be expressed by Equation 40 and Equation 41. InEquation 40 and Equation 41, it is assumed that the specific heatcapacity (represented by the variable “C_(P)”) is time-independentwithin the volume of fluid (represented by the variable “Ω”), and thevolume of fluid is fixed in time.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial Q_{den}}{\partial t} = {{\frac{\partial}{\partial t}{\int_{\Omega}{\rho\; C_{p}TdV}}} = {\int_{\Omega}{\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\left( {\rho C_{p}T} \right){dV}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 40} \right) \\{= {\int_{\Omega}{{C_{P}\left( {{T\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}} + \frac{\partial T}{\partial t}} \right)}{dV}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 41} \right)\end{matrix}$

If the fluid is moving with a velocity (represented by a variable“{right arrow over (u)}”), the heat flux due to advection may beexpressed as “{right arrow over (J)}_(adv)=ρC_(P)T{right arrow over(u)}” and the rate of change of thermal heat due to motion is given byEquation 42 and Equation 43 below.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial Q_{adv}}{\partial t} = {{\oint_{\partial\Omega}{{\overset{\rightarrow}{n} \cdot {\overset{\rightarrow}{J}}_{adv}}{dS}}} = {{\int_{\Omega}{{\nabla{\cdot {\overset{\rightarrow}{J}}_{adv}}}{dV}}} = {\int_{\Omega}{{\nabla{\cdot \left( {C_{p}\rho\;\overset{\rightarrow}{u}T} \right)}}\mspace{11mu}{dV}}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 42} \right) \\{= {\int_{\Omega}{{C_{p}\left( {{T\;{\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\;\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} + {\rho\;{\overset{\rightarrow}{u} \cdot {\nabla T}}}} \right)}\mspace{11mu}{dV}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 43} \right)\end{matrix}$

If (for now) convection (or fluid motion) is assumed to be the onlymechanism of heat transfer, conservation of energy implies that the sumof Equation 41 and Equation 43 is zero. This relationship is shown inEquation 44 below.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial Q_{den}}{\partial t} = {\frac{\partial Q_{den}}{\partial t} = 0}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 44} \right)\end{matrix}$

After some re-factoring this leads to Equation 45 below, which in turnimplies (since the volume of fluid represented by the variable “Ω” isarbitrary) that the kernel of the volume integral must be zero.

$\begin{matrix}{\int_{\Omega}{C_{P}\left( {{{T\left( {\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} \right)} + {{\rho\left( {\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} + {\overset{\rightarrow}{u} \cdot {\nabla T}}} \right)}{dV}}} = 0} \right.}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 45} \right)\end{matrix}$

As explained above, the continuity equation (Equation 6) may beexpresses as

$\begin{matrix}{{{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} = 0},} & \;\end{matrix}$

which when combined with ρ>0 and C_(P)>0 leads to Equation 46 below.Equation 46 is a transport equation for the absolute temperature, whichis a prototypical hyperbolic transport equation.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} = {{- \overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \cdot {\nabla T}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 46} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equation 46 resembles Equation 11, which is the transport equation fordensity in an incompressible flow. While Equation 46 models the physicalphenomena of convection, the mathematical terminology is (hyperbolic)advection.

Conduction

Conduction is the transport of heat caused by physical contact between(instead of motion by) molecules. Heat flux (represented by a variable“{right arrow over (J)}_(dif)”) may be measured in energy per unit timeand unit area (e.g., W/m²). Equation 47 is Fourier's law. According toFourier's law, the heat flux through a surface is proportional to anegative gradient of the temperature (e.g., measured in K/m) across thesurface (represented by an expression “∇T”). In Equation 47, a variable“k” represents the thermal conductivity (e.g., measured in W/mK). Thethermal conductivity (represented by the variable “k”) may be 0.026W/(mK) for air. The subscript “dif” in the variable “{right arrow over(J)}_(dif)” refers to diffusion, which is the fundamental mechanism forthis type of heat transfer.

{right arrow over (J)} _(dif) =−k∇T   (Eqn. 47)

Integrating the heat flux over the surface area (represented by theexpression “∂Ω”) of a small fluid volume (represented by the variable“Ω”) yields Equation 48 and Equation 49.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial Q_{dif}}{\partial t} = {{\oint_{\partial\Omega}{{\overset{\rightarrow}{n} \cdot {\overset{\rightarrow}{J}}_{dif}}{dS}}} = {{\int_{\Omega}{{\nabla{\cdot {\overset{\rightarrow}{J}}_{dif}}}{dV}}} = {- {\int_{\Omega}{k{\nabla{\cdot T}}\mspace{11mu}{dV}}}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 48} \right) \\{= {- {\int_{\Omega}{k{\nabla^{2}T}\mspace{11mu}{dV}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 49} \right)\end{matrix}$

Combining the effects of advection and diffusion implies Equation 50 andEquation 51 below.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial Q_{den}}{\partial t} = {{\frac{\partial Q_{adv}}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial Q_{dif}}{\partial t}} = 0}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 50} \right) \\{{\int_{\Omega}{\left( {{C_{P}{T\ \left( {\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} \right)}} + {C_{P}{\rho\left( {\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} + {\overset{\rightarrow}{u} \cdot \ {\nabla T}}} \right)}} - {k{\nabla^{2}T}}} \right)dV}} = 0} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 51} \right)\end{matrix}$

When

${{\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} = 0},{\rho > 0},$

and C_(P)>0, Equation 52, which is a PDE, may be obtained.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} = {{{- \overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \cdot {\nabla T}} + {\frac{k}{\rho C_{P}}{\nabla^{2}T}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 52} \right)\end{matrix}$

A first term “−{right arrow over (u)}·∇T” on the right-hand-side ofEquation 52 accounts for transport (advection) and a second term

$``{{\frac{k}{\rho C_{P}}{\nabla^{2}T}}"}$

on the right-hand-side of Equation 52 models diffusion though theLaplacian differential operator. Physicists refer to this asconvection-diffusion whereas mathematicians tend to call itadvection-diffusion. Equation 52 reduces to Equation 53 below if thefluid is assumed to be stationary, {right arrow over (u)}={right arrowover (O)}.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} = {\alpha{\nabla^{2}T}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 53} \right)\end{matrix}$

In Equation 53,

$\alpha \equiv \frac{k}{{\rho C}_{P}}$

is known as the thermal diffusivity of the medium. Equation 53 is aprototypical parabolic PDE, which is simply dubbed “the heat equation.”But, it is important to note that Equation 53 accounts for only one ofthree fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer, namely conduction.Equation 52, which was derived for heat advection-diffusion for acompressible fluid model, is actually identical to its incompressiblecounterpart, typically employed in computer graphics. This implies thata computer process computing values using Equation 52 would not have todeal with additional complications in its numerical implementation.

Solving the heat equation may be computationally expensive. But, awell-known mathematical technique exists for obtaining a general orfundamental solution to many PDEs, like the heat equation. Thus, afundamental solution may be generated for the heat equation (andincluded in the combustion data 150). Then, concrete solutions can begenerated from the fundamental solution using convolution. In computergraphics, convolution causes or is depicted as blurring. Such blurringmay be applied to a visual representation using a convolution kernel(e.g., a Gaussian kernel). Thus, solving the heat equation may bereduced to blurring with a convolution kernel, which can be doneefficiently. The convolution kernel may be derived from the heatequation. The size of the convolution kernel may be based at least inpart on the timestamp (or time step), and the viscosity or the diffusioncoefficient. For example, smaller timestamps (or time steps) may yieldsmaller convolution kernels.

Radiation

Heat transfer caused by electromagnetic radiation is notoriouslydifficult to model since such heat transfer is based on complexinteractions over long distances (much like global illumination). Assuch, the combustion model 170 aims at capturing the essence of heattransfer caused by electromagnetic radiation and model it with anadditional term to the convection-diffusion PDE (Equation 52) thatapproximates its behavior.

A simple classical model for thermal radiation is the blackbody modeland radiation from an idealized blackbody model can be expressed byPlanck's law, which is Equation 54 below.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial{Q_{black}\left( {T,\lambda} \right)}}{\partial t} = {\frac{2\pi c^{2}h}{\lambda^{5}}\left( {{\exp\left( \frac{ch}{\lambda kT} \right)} - 1} \right)^{- 1}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 54} \right)\end{matrix}$

Planck's law describes an amount of heat (or energy) emitted per unittime, wavelength, and surface area from an idealized blackbody model asa function of its absolute temperature (represented by a variable “T”)when the absolute temperature is greater than zero. When integrated overall wavelengths (represented by a variable “λ”), Planck's law reduces toEquation 55, which is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial{Q_{black}(T)}}{\partial t} = {{\int_{0}^{\infty}{\frac{\partial{Q_{black}\left( {T,\lambda} \right)}}{\partial t}d\lambda}} = {\frac{2\pi^{5}k^{4}T^{4}}{15c^{2}h^{3}} \equiv {\sigma T^{4}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 55} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equation 55 includes the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

$``{{{\sigma \equiv \frac{2\pi^{5}k^{4}}{15c^{2}h^{3}}} = {{5.6}70373 \times 10^{- 8}Wm^{- 2}K^{- 4}}},}"$

in which the variable “k” represents the Boltzmann constant, a variable“c” represents the speed of light in vacuum, and a variable “h”represents Planck's constant. To allow for this simple power law to beapplied to more general materials (sometimes called graybody materials),Equation 56 below introduces a unit-less parameter “ϵ.” In Equation 56,a variable “{right arrow over (J)}_(rad)” represents an effect (e.g.,measured in in watts (or J/s) per unit area (m²)) emitted in the normaldirection (represented by a variable “{right arrow over (n)}”) at allfrequencies from a body with the temperature represented by the variable“T.” The temperature may be measured in Kelvin (K). When the parameter“ϵ” has a value that is greater than zero and less than or equal to one,the emissivity is that of a graybody. The parameter “ϵ” is equal to onefor an ideal blackbody.

{right arrow over (J)}_(rad)=ϵ σT⁴{right arrow over (n)}  (Eqn. 56)

Several problems arise when a model of thermal radiation for combustionis based on the Stefan-Boltzmann law. First, the model would apply onlyto solids and not gases. So, soot is actually the only material in thecombustion model 170 that can be reasonably modeled by theStefan-Boltzmann law. In fact, this is a fairly good model for theincandescence of luminous flames, but not for the light emission fromthe hot gases. Second, solving heat transfer due to blackbody radiationin a fluid, despite the deceivingly simple power relation, isexceedingly complicated. In fact, so much so that many scientificsimulation techniques approximate and even ignore this effect. Thereason is for this is that this resembles global illumination incomplexity where all materials are simultaneously emitting and absorbingphotons. The combustion model 170 attempts to model this phenomena witha term that at least captures the essence of this mechanism under severeassumptions. As such, the following may be considered an approximation.

If a graybody with a temperature (represented by the variable “T”) isembedded in an ambient space with a constant temperature (represented bythe variable “T_(amb)”), the normal flux of radiation per surface areaaway from this body may be determined by Equation 57. In Equation 57,the variable “{right arrow over (n)}” represents the local surfacenormal of the graybody. Both the material temperature and ambienttemperature (represented by the variables “T” and “T_(amb),”respectively) are measured in kelvin.

{right arrow over (J)} _(rad)=ϵ σ(T ⁴ −T _(amb) ⁴){right arrow over(n)}  (Eqn. 57)

For a volume (represented by the variable “Ω”) with a surface area(represented by the expression “∂Ω”), Equation 58 may be used todetermine a total rate of change of energy due to heat flux.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial Q_{rad}}{\partial t} = {{\oint_{\partial\Omega}{{\overset{\rightarrow}{n} \cdot {\overset{\rightarrow}{J}}_{rad}}dS}} = {\int_{\Omega}{\in {\sigma{\nabla{\cdot \left( {\left( {T^{4} - T_{amb}^{4}} \right)\overset{\rightarrow}{n}} \right)}}dV}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 58} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equation 59 may be obtained when the volume (represented by the variable“Ω”) is a very small sphere, because both the temperature and theambient temperature (represented by the variables “T” and “T_(amb),”respectively) can be assumed to be constant and

${\nabla{\cdot \overset{\rightarrow}{n}}} = \frac{1}{r}$

with a variable “r” representing the radius of the sphere. The radiusmay be conceptualized as being a characteristic length scale of theradiation model (such as the voxel size).

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial Q_{rad}}{\partial t} = {\int_{\Omega}{\frac{\epsilon\sigma}{r}\left( {T^{4} - T_{amb}^{4}} \right)dV}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 59} \right)\end{matrix}$

The total energy balance from heat exchange due to the combined effectsof convection, conduction and radiation may be expressed as Equation 60below.

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\partial Q_{den}}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial Q_{adv}}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial Q_{dif}}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial Q_{rad}}{\partial t}} = 0} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 60} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equation 60 implies Equation 61 below, which is an integral equation.

$\begin{matrix}{{\int_{\Omega}{\left( {{C_{P}{T\ \left( {\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot \left( {\rho\overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \right)}}} \right)}} + {\rho{C_{P}\left( {\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} + {\overset{\rightarrow}{u} \cdot \ {\nabla T}}} \right)}} - {k{\nabla^{2}T}} + {\frac{\in \sigma}{r}\left( {T^{4} - T_{amb}^{4}} \right)}} \right)dV}} = 0} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 61} \right)\end{matrix}$

Finally, since Equation 61 must hold for any small spherical volume,Equation 62 below, which is a PDE, may be obtained for the absolutetemperature. Equation 62 is an equation of evolution for temperature.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} = {{{- \overset{\rightarrow}{u}} \cdot {\nabla T}} + {\frac{k}{\rho C_{P}}{\nabla^{2}T}} - {\frac{\in \sigma}{{r\rho C}_{P}}\left( {T^{4} - T_{amb}^{4}} \right)}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 62} \right)\end{matrix}$

The model of radiation may be considered to be a grossoversimplification because the ambient temperature (represented by thevariable “T_(amb)”) is far from constant in time or space, but theambient temperature captures the spirit of radiative cooling. As such,the ambient temperature (represented by the variable “T_(amb)”) isdefined as an average temperature of the surroundings that exchange heatthrough radiation with the fluid.

In an embodiment of a combustion simulation system described herein,additional elements are processed by the combustion simulation system toprovide for visually appealing simulations. In some embodiments, theseinclude non-equilibrium conditions.

In a particular embodiment, a simulator for generating visualizationsmight process representations of compressible fluid characteristicsbased on relative temperature and molar mass changes, but also canprovide for integration based on absolute density of the fluids andparticular initial conditions.

Continuum mechanics equations for compressible fluids can be used forsimulations that take into account conservation of momentum,conservation of mass, and other attributes of a physical system.Equation 63 represents Newton's Second Law, stating that the rate ofchange in momentum is equal to the sum of forces.

$\begin{matrix}{{\rho\frac{Du}{Dt}} = {{- {\nabla p}} + {\mu{\nabla^{2}u}} + {\rho\; g}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 63} \right)\end{matrix}$

Eqn. 63 represents a relationship between a fluid with density ρ,velocity u, pressure p and a linear viscosity constant μ in the presenceof gravity g.

Eqn. 64 corresponds to conservation of mass, which can be represented asa continuity equation describing the evolution of density ρ in velocityfield u.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{D\;\rho}{Dt} = {{- \rho}{\nabla{\cdot u}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 64} \right)\end{matrix}$

For incompressible fluids, this simplifies to a zero-divergencecondition, ∇·u=0, which together with Equation 63 forms the system ofNavier-Stokes equations.

Where density is not constant nor being passively advected, as in thecase of an incompressible fluid or other cases, density relates to afluid state as in Equation 65, wherein the ideal gas law relates densityρ to pressure p, molar mass M, and temperature T, where R is thethermodynamic constant.

$\begin{matrix}{\rho = \frac{pM}{RT}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 65} \right)\end{matrix}$

Eqn. 66 represents temperature evolution, as an advection-diffusionequation describing the evolution of temperature, which together withEqns. 63, 64, and 65 forms a closed system in variables u, p, ρ, T.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{DT}{Dt} = {\alpha{\nabla^{2}T}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 66} \right)\end{matrix}$

In Equation 66, α is a heat transfer coefficient of the fluid that ingeneral depends on how the fluid is evolving. Isobaric, adiabatic,isotemal or other thermodynamic variations could affect its particularvalue.

A simulator might use some assumptions and simplifications to providefor an efficient simulation process and apparatus, compared with tryingto solve a system of Eqns. 63-66 as each of the equations ties togethermultiple unknown quantities and can be hard to solve in general.

As explained above, the simulator can be simplified by reducing theseinter-variable dependencies by replacing variable p with fixedatmospheric pressure p_(atm) in Equation 65 and also assumingtemperature evolution in Equation 66 is isobaric (e.g., happening atconstant atmospheric pressure). This may work well when when“mechanical” and “thermodynamic” pressures, but in an embodiment, asimulator would use the more general case with a nonzero pressure field,p. A simplification may work well considering that air is light andatmospheric pressure is huge. So there could still exist a pressuregradient ∇p of the pressure field p that should be taken into account,causing an effect of pushing the fluid around, while pressure itselfbeing nearly constant and equal to p_(atm) for all the thermodynamicpurposes. But other cases might apply.

A simulator might seek to solve the system of continuous equations ofEquation 67, where k is thermal conductivity of the fluid and C_(P) isits specific heat capacity at constant pressure.

$\begin{matrix}\left\{ \begin{matrix}{\rho\frac{Du}{Dt}} & = & {{- {\nabla p}} + {\mu{\nabla^{2}u}} + {\rho\; g}} \\\frac{D\;\rho}{Dt} & = & {{- \rho}{\nabla{\cdot u}}} \\\rho & = & \frac{p_{atm}M}{RT} \\\frac{DT}{Dt} & = & {\frac{k}{\rho\; C_{P}}{\nabla^{2}T}}\end{matrix} \right. & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 67} \right)\end{matrix}$

The simulator might use operator splitting to solve the system ofequations defined above, which can help move challengingadvection/convection computations into a separate integration step. Thetemperature evolution equation can be solved on its own as a regularheat diffusion. It may also include a combustion/chemistry step, butthat can be processed independently as well.

In the case where the simulator has a predefined or computed temperaturefield and predefined or computed molar mass evolution, perhaps a resultof a combustion/chemistry step, Equation 67 reduces to Equation 68.

$\begin{matrix}\left\{ \begin{matrix}{\rho\frac{Du}{Dt}} & = & {{- {\nabla p}} + {\mu{\nabla^{2}u}} + {\rho\; g}} \\\frac{D\;\rho}{Dt} & = & {{- \rho}{\nabla{\cdot u}}} \\\rho & = & \frac{p_{atm}M}{RT}\end{matrix} \right. & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 68} \right)\end{matrix}$

The simulator might process Equation 68 by taking a time derivative,resulting in Equation 69.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{D\;\rho}{Dt} = {\frac{p_{atm}}{RT}\left( {\frac{DM}{Dt} = {\frac{M}{T}\frac{DT}{Dt}}} \right)}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 69} \right)\end{matrix}$

Substituting into the second equation of Equation 67 yields Equation 70,in which density ρ is first integrated with Equation 69 and thensubstituted into Equation 70 to be solved as a regular pressureprojection but with predefined, rather than zero, divergence.

$\begin{matrix}\left\{ \begin{matrix}{\rho\frac{Du}{Dt}} & = & {{- {\nabla p}} + {\mu{\nabla^{2}u}} + {\rho\; g}} \\{\nabla{\cdot u}} & = & {{- \frac{p_{atm}}{\rho\;{RT}}}\left( {\frac{DM}{Dt} - {\frac{M}{T}\frac{DT}{Dt}}} \right)}\end{matrix} \right. & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 70} \right)\end{matrix}$

While a simulator using this approach might operate well in a continuoussetting, a simulator that runs without assuming the ideal gas equationin Equation 68 is satisfied at the beginning of an integration step orattempting to have it satisfied at the end of the step as well throughdoing an incremental update to density given predefined M and T.

Such a simulator might be useful where the inputs, artist-driven orotherwise, include densities that may drift, as a result of impreciseadvection or otherwise. Another use is where the density is providedexternally or stamped by an artist, in a way that does not immediatelysatisfy the ideal gas equation. The simulator also handles cases whereadditional phenomena related to density evolution are desired such as,for instance, density diffusion simulation.

Such a simulator might process inputs to resolve the ideal gas lawdirectly rather than considering density evolution in differential form.The simulator might model density at a beginning of a step as avariable, ρ_(prev), that does not necessarily satisfy the ideal gasequation with newly computed T, M, or even T_(prev), M_(prev). Thesimulator can then directly compute density as in Equation 71 and getthe result of Equation 72, where δt is the timestep and the densityscaling, s, is equal to ρ/ρ_(prev).

$\begin{matrix}{\mspace{79mu}{\rho = \frac{p_{atm}M}{RT}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 71} \right) \\{{\nabla{\cdot u}} = {{{- \frac{1}{\rho}}\frac{D\;\rho}{Dt}} = {{{- \frac{D\;\ln\;\rho}{Dt}} \simeq {{- \frac{1}{\delta\; t}}\left( {{\ln\;\rho} - {\ln\;\rho_{prev}}} \right)}} = {{{- \frac{1}{\delta\; t}}\ln\frac{\rho}{\rho_{prev}}} = {{- \frac{1}{\delta\; t}}\ln\mspace{14mu} s}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 72} \right)\end{matrix}$

This can result in a Navier-Stokes-like system to be solved, as inEquation 73.

$\begin{matrix}\left\{ \begin{matrix}{\rho\frac{Du}{Dt}} & = & {{- {\nabla p}} + {\mu{\nabla^{2}u}} + {\rho\; g}} \\{\nabla{\cdot u}} & = & {{- \frac{1}{\delta\; t}}\ln\mspace{14mu} s}\end{matrix} \right. & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 73} \right)\end{matrix}$

In some embodiments, the simulator is programmed with furthersimplifications, where quantities are represented by concentrations, c,rather than with densities ρ, using the convention that equal toρ=cρ_(ref). The ideal gas law then can be computed at atmosphericpressure as in Equation 74.

$\begin{matrix}{c = \frac{p_{atm}M}{\rho_{ref}{RT}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 74} \right)\end{matrix}$

The reference density ρ_(ref) might be defined such that atconcentration 1, and temperature T_(ref) (defined perhaps as roomtemperature), the pressure is exactly equal to atmospheric p_(atm), asin Equation 75.

$\begin{matrix}{1 = \frac{p_{atm}M}{\rho_{ref}{RTT}_{ref}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 75} \right)\end{matrix}$

From these relationships, the simulator can compute a result as inEquation 76. The value C_(prev) does not necessarily satisfy the idealgas law at atmospheric pressure and temperature T.

$\begin{matrix}{s = {\frac{\rho}{\rho_{prev}} = {\frac{c}{c_{prev}} = {{\frac{p_{atm}M}{\rho_{ref}{RT}}\frac{1}{c_{prev}}} = {\frac{1}{c_{prev}}\frac{T_{ref}}{T}}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 76} \right)\end{matrix}$

The simulator might then perform the following steps:

-   -   1. Collect total chemicals' concentration p_(atm) at the        beginning of a step.    -   2. Scale the concentration by a temperature ratio, T/T_(ref).    -   3. Invert to obtain the required concentration/density scaling        s.    -   4. Multiply all chemical concentrations by s.

Then, a quantity—(ln s)/δt is added

The simulator might spread an adjustment over a nonzero relaxation timeinstead of performing immediate concentration compensation and applyingthe corresponding expansion. The simulator might read in from storedmemory a stored relaxation time parameter, t_(r). So, instead of aimingfor the final concentration c=sc_(prev) by the end of the timestep, thesimulator instead targets as in Equation 77.

$\begin{matrix}{\overset{\sim}{c} = {c + {\left( {c_{prev} - c} \right){\exp\left( {- \frac{\delta\; t}{t_{r}}} \right)}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 77} \right)\end{matrix}$

Using this approach, the simulator might exponentially approach a targetconcentration, c, reducing the error by a factor of e over each t_(r)period of time. This is similar to updating s in steps 3 and 4 abovewith a new target as shown in Equation 78.

$\begin{matrix}{\overset{\sim}{s} = {{s + {\left( {1 - s} \right){\exp\left( {- \frac{\delta\; t}{t_{r}}} \right)}}} = {\frac{1 + {\left( {\frac{1}{s} - 1} \right){\exp\left( {- \frac{\delta\; t}{t_{r}}} \right)}}}{\frac{1}{s}} + \frac{1 + {\left( {\frac{c_{prev}T}{T_{ref}} - 1} \right){\exp\left( {- \frac{\delta\; t}{t_{r}}} \right)}}}{\frac{c_{prev}T}{T_{ref}}}}}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 78} \right)\end{matrix}$

The simulator can be programmed to execute code that corresponds to theequations described herein for efficient simulation of fluids.

FIG. 6 illustrates the combustion simulation system to provide forvisually appealing simulations. The example visual content generationsystem 600 might be used to generate imagery in the form of still imagesand/or video sequences of images. Visual content generation system 600might generate imagery of live action scenes, computer generated scenes,or a combination thereof. In a practical system, users are provided withtools that allow them to specify, at high levels and low levels wherenecessary, what is to go into that imagery. For example, a user might bean animation artist (like artist 142 illustrated in FIG. 1) and mightuse visual content generation system 600 to capture interaction betweentwo human actors performing live on a sound stage and replace one of thehuman actors with a computer-generated anthropomorphic non-human beingthat behaves in ways that mimic the replaced human actor's movements andmannerisms, and then add in a third computer-generated character andbackground scene elements that are computer-generated, all in order totell a desired story or generate desired imagery.

Still images that are output by visual content generation system 600might be represented in computer memory as pixel arrays, such as atwo-dimensional array of pixel color values, each associated with apixel having a position in a two-dimensional image array. Pixel colorvalues might be represented by three or more (or fewer) color values perpixel, such as a red value, a green value, and a blue value (e.g., inRGB format). Dimensions of such a two-dimensional array of pixel colorvalues might correspond to a preferred and/or standard display scheme,such as 1920-pixel columns by 1280-pixel rows or 4096-pixel columns by2160-pixel rows, or some other resolution. Images might or might not bestored in a compressed format, but either way, a desired image may berepresented as a two-dimensional array of pixel color values. In anothervariation, images are represented by a pair of stereo images forthree-dimensional presentations and in other variations, an imageoutput, or a portion thereof, might represent three-dimensional imageryinstead of just two-dimensional views. In yet other embodiments, pixelvalues are data structures and a pixel value is associated with a pixeland can be a scalar value, a vector, or another data structureassociated with a corresponding pixel. That pixel value might includecolor values, or not, and might include depth values, alpha values,weight values, object identifiers or other pixel value components.

A stored video sequence might include a plurality of images such as thestill images described above, but where each image of the plurality ofimages has a place in a timing sequence and the stored video sequence isarranged so that when each image is displayed in order, at a timeindicated by the timing sequence, the display presents what appears tobe moving and/or changing imagery. In one representation, each image ofthe plurality of images is a video frame having a specified frame numberthat corresponds to an amount of time that would elapse from when avideo sequence begins playing until that specified frame is displayed. Aframe rate might be used to describe how many frames of the stored videosequence are displayed per unit time. Example video sequences mightinclude 24 frames per second (24 FPS), 50 FPS, 140 FPS, or other framerates. In some embodiments, frames are interlaced or otherwise presentedfor display, but for clarity of description, in some examples, it isassumed that a video frame has one specified display time, but othervariations might be contemplated.

One method of creating a video sequence is to simply use a video camerato record a live action scene, i.e., events that physically occur andcan be recorded by a video camera. The events being recorded can beevents to be interpreted as viewed (such as seeing two human actors talkto each other) and/or can include events to be interpreted differentlydue to clever camera operations (such as moving actors about a stage tomake one appear larger than the other despite the actors actually beingof similar build, or using miniature objects with other miniatureobjects so as to be interpreted as a scene containing life-sizedobjects).

Creating video sequences for story-telling or other purposes often callsfor scenes that cannot be created with live actors, such as a talkingtree, an anthropomorphic object, space battles, and the like. Such videosequences might be generated computationally rather than capturing lightfrom live scenes. In some instances, an entirety of a video sequencemight be generated computationally, as in the case of acomputer-animated feature film. In some video sequences, it is desirableto have some computer-generated imagery and some live action, perhapswith some careful merging of the two.

While computer-generated imagery might be creatable by manuallyspecifying each color value for each pixel in each frame, this is likelytoo tedious to be practical. As a result, a creator uses various toolsto specify the imagery at a higher level. As an example, an artist(e.g., artist 142 illustrated in FIG. 1) might specify the positions ina scene space, such as a three-dimensional coordinate system, of objectsand/or lighting, as well as a camera viewpoint, and a camera view plane.From that, a rendering engine could take all of those as inputs, andcompute each of the pixel color values in each of the frames. In anotherexample, an artist specifies position and movement of an articulatedobject having some specified texture rather than specifying the color ofeach pixel representing that articulated object in each frame.

In a specific example, a rendering engine performs ray tracing wherein apixel color value is determined by computing which objects lie along aray traced in the scene space from the camera viewpoint through a pointor portion of the camera view plane that corresponds to that pixel. Forexample, a camera view plane might be represented as a rectangle havinga position in the scene space that is divided into a grid correspondingto the pixels of the ultimate image to be generated, and if a raydefined by the camera viewpoint in the scene space and a given pixel inthat grid first intersects a solid, opaque, blue object, that givenpixel is assigned the color blue. Of course, for moderncomputer-generated imagery, determining pixel colors—and therebygenerating imagery—can be more complicated, as there are lightingissues, reflections, interpolations, and other considerations.

As illustrated in FIG. 6, a live action capture system 602 captures alive scene that plays out on a stage 604. Live action capture system 602is described herein in greater detail, but might include computerprocessing capabilities, image processing capabilities, one or moreprocessors, program code storage for storing program instructionsexecutable by the one or more processors, as well as user input devicesand user output devices, not all of which are shown.

In a specific live action capture system, cameras 606(1) and 606(2)capture the scene, while in some systems, there might be other sensor(s)608 that capture information from the live scene (e.g., infraredcameras, infrared sensors, motion capture (“mo-cap”) detectors, etc.).On stage 604, there might be human actors, animal actors, inanimateobjects, background objects, and possibly an object such as a greenscreen 610 that is designed to be captured in a live scene recording insuch a way that it is easily overlaid with computer-generated imagery.Stage 604 might also contain objects that serve as fiducials, such asfiducials 612(1)-(3), that might be used post-capture to determine wherean object was during capture. A live action scene might be illuminatedby one or more lights, such as an overhead light 614.

During or following the capture of a live action scene, live actioncapture system 602 might output live action footage to a live actionfootage storage 620. A live action processing system 622 might processlive action footage to generate data about that live action footage andstore that data into a live action metadata storage 624. Live actionprocessing system 622 might include computer processing capabilities,image processing capabilities, one or more processors, program codestorage for storing program instructions executable by the one or moreprocessors, as well as user input devices and user output devices, notall of which are shown. Live action processing system 622 might processlive action footage to determine boundaries of objects in a frame ormultiple frames, determine locations of objects in a live action scene,where a camera was relative to some action, distances between movingobjects and fiducials, etc. Where elements have sensors attached to themor are detected, the metadata might include location, color, andintensity of overhead light 614, as that might be useful inpost-processing to match computer-generated lighting on objects that arecomputer-generated and overlaid on the live action footage. Live actionprocessing system 622 might operate autonomously, perhaps based onpredetermined program instructions, to generate and output the liveaction metadata upon receiving and inputting the live action footage.The live action footage can be camera-captured data as well as data fromother sensors.

An animation creation system 630 is another part of visual contentgeneration system 600. Animation creation system 630 might includecomputer processing capabilities, image processing capabilities, one ormore processors, program code storage for storing program instructionsexecutable by the one or more processors, as well as user input devicesand user output devices, not all of which are shown. Animation creationsystem 630 might be used by animation artists, managers, and others tospecify details, perhaps programmatically and/or interactively, ofimagery to be generated. From user input and data from a database orother data source, indicated as a data store 632, animation creationsystem 630 might generate and output data representing objects (e.g., ahorse, a human, a ball, a teapot, a cloud, a light source, a texture,etc.) to an object storage 634, generate and output data representing ascene into a scene description storage 636, and/or generate and outputdata representing animation sequences to an animation sequence storage638.

Scene data might indicate locations of objects and other visualelements, values of their parameters, lighting, camera location, cameraview plane, and other details that a rendering engine 650 might use torender CGI imagery. For example, scene data might include the locationsof several articulated characters, background objects, lighting, etc.specified in a two-dimensional space, three-dimensional space, or otherdimensional space (such as a 2.5-dimensional space, three-quarterdimensions, pseudo-3D spaces, etc.) along with locations of a cameraviewpoint and view place from which to render imagery. For example,scene data might indicate that there is to be a red, fuzzy, talking dogin the right half of a video and a stationary tree in the left half ofthe video, all illuminated by a bright point light source that is aboveand behind the camera viewpoint. In some cases, the camera viewpoint isnot explicit, but can be determined from a viewing frustum. In the caseof imagery that is to be rendered to a rectangular view, the frustumwould be a truncated pyramid. Other shapes for a rendered view arepossible and the camera view plane could be different for differentshapes.

Animation creation system 630 might be interactive, allowing a user toread in animation sequences, scene descriptions, object details, etc.and edit those, possibly returning them to storage to update or replaceexisting data. As an example, an operator might read in objects fromobject storage into a baking processor 642 that would transform thoseobjects into simpler forms and return those to object storage 634 as newor different objects. For example, an operator might read in an objectthat has dozens of specified parameters (movable joints, color options,textures, etc.), select some values for those parameters and then save abaked object that is a simplified object with now fixed values for thoseparameters.

Rather than requiring user specification of each detail of a scene, datafrom data store 632 might be used to drive object presentation. Forexample, if an artist is creating an animation of a spaceship passingover the surface of the Earth, instead of manually drawing or specifyinga coastline, the artist might specify that animation creation system 630is to read data from data store 632 in a file containing coordinates ofEarth coastlines and generate background elements of a scene using thatcoastline data.

Animation sequence data might be in the form of time series of data forcontrol points of an object that has attributes that are controllable.For example, an object might be a humanoid character with limbs andjoints that are movable in manners similar to typical human movements.An artist can specify an animation sequence at a high level, such as“the left hand moves from location (X1, Y1, Z1) to (X2, Y2, Z2) overtime T1 to T2”, at a lower level (e.g., “move the elbow joint 2.5degrees per frame”) or even at a very high level (e.g., “character Ashould move, consistent with the laws of physics that are given for thisscene, from point P1 to point P2 along a specified path”).

Animation sequences in an animated scene might be specified by whathappens in a live action scene. An animation driver generator 644 mightread in live action metadata, such as data representing movements andpositions of body parts of a live actor during a live action scene.Animation driver generator 644 might generate corresponding animationparameters to be stored in animation sequence storage 638 for use inanimating a CGI object. This can be useful where a live action scene ofa human actor is captured while wearing mo-cap fiducials (e.g.,high-contrast markers outside actor clothing, high-visibility paint onactor skin, face, etc.) and the movement of those fiducials isdetermined by live action processing system 622. Animation drivergenerator 644 might convert that movement data into specifications ofhow joints of an articulated CGI character are to move over time.

A rendering engine 650 can read in animation sequences, scenedescriptions, and object details, as well as rendering engine controlinputs, such as a resolution selection and a set of renderingparameters. Resolution selection might be useful for an operator tocontrol a trade-off between speed of rendering and clarity of detail, asspeed might be more important than clarity for a movie maker to testsome interaction or direction, while clarity might be more importantthan speed for a movie maker to generate data that will be used forfinal prints of feature films to be distributed. Rendering engine 650might include computer processing capabilities, image processingcapabilities, one or more processors, program code storage for storingprogram instructions executable by the one or more processors, as wellas user input devices and user output devices, not all of which areshown.

Visual content generation system 600 can also include a merging system660 that merges live footage with animated content. The live footagemight be obtained and input by reading from live action footage storage620 to obtain live action footage, by reading from live action metadatastorage 624 to obtain details such as presumed segmentation in capturedimages segmenting objects in a live action scene from their background(perhaps aided by the fact that green screen 610 was part of the liveaction scene), and by obtaining CGI imagery from rendering engine 650.

A merging system 660 might also read data from rulesets formerging/combining storage 662. A very simple example of a rule in aruleset might be “obtain a full image including a two-dimensional pixelarray from live footage, obtain a full image including a two-dimensionalpixel array from rendering engine 650, and output an image where eachpixel is a corresponding pixel from rendering engine 650 when thecorresponding pixel in the live footage is a specific color of green,otherwise output a pixel value from the corresponding pixel in the livefootage.”

Merging system 660 might include computer processing capabilities, imageprocessing capabilities, one or more processors, program code storagefor storing program instructions executable by the one or moreprocessors, as well as user input devices and user output devices, notall of which are shown. Merging system 660 might operate autonomously,following programming instructions, or might have a user interface orprogrammatic interface over which an operator can control a mergingprocess. In some embodiments, an operator can specify parameter valuesto use in a merging process and/or might specify specific tweaks to bemade to an output of merging system 660, such as modifying boundaries ofsegmented objects, inserting blurs to smooth out imperfections, oradding other effects. Based on its inputs, merging system 660 can outputan image to be stored in a static image storage 670 and/or a sequence ofimages in the form of video to be stored in an animated/combined videostorage 672.

Thus, as described, visual content generation system 600 can be used togenerate video that combines live action with computer-generatedanimation using various components and tools, some of which aredescribed in more detail herein. While visual content generation system600 might be useful for such combinations, with suitable settings, itcan be used for outputting entirely live action footage or entirely CGIsequences. The code may also be provided and/or carried by a transitorycomputer readable medium, e.g., a transmission medium such as in theform of a signal transmitted over a network.

According to one embodiment, the techniques described herein areimplemented by one or more generalized computing systems programmed toperform the techniques pursuant to program instructions in firmware,memory, other storage, or a combination. Special-purpose computingdevices may be used, such as desktop computer systems, portable computersystems, handheld devices, networking devices or any other device thatincorporates hard-wired and/or program logic to implement thetechniques.

For example, FIG. 7 is a block diagram that illustrates a computersystem 700 upon which the computer systems of the systems describedherein and/or visual content generation system 600 (see FIG. 6) may beimplemented. Computer system 700 includes a bus 702 or othercommunication mechanism for communicating information, and a processor704 coupled with bus 702 for processing information. Processor 704 maybe, for example, a general-purpose microprocessor.

Computer system 700 also includes a main memory 706, such as arandom-access memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device, coupled tobus 702 for storing information and instructions to be executed byprocessor 704. Main memory 706 may also be used for storing temporaryvariables or other intermediate information during execution ofinstructions to be executed by processor 704. Such instructions, whenstored in non-transitory storage media accessible to processor 704,render computer system 700 into a special-purpose machine that iscustomized to perform the operations specified in the instructions.

Computer system 700 further includes a read only memory (ROM) 708 orother static storage device coupled to bus 702 for storing staticinformation and instructions for processor 704. A storage device 710,such as a magnetic disk or optical disk, is provided and coupled to bus702 for storing information and instructions.

Computer system 700 may be coupled via bus 702 to a display 712, such asa computer monitor, for displaying information to a computer user. Aninput device 714, including alphanumeric and other keys, is coupled tobus 702 for communicating information and command selections toprocessor 704. Another type of user input device is a cursor control716, such as a mouse, a trackball, or cursor direction keys forcommunicating direction information and command selections to processor704 and for controlling cursor movement on display 712. This inputdevice typically has two degrees of freedom in two axes, a first axis(e.g., x) and a second axis (e.g., y), that allows the device to specifypositions in a plane.

Computer system 700 may implement the techniques described herein usingcustomized hard-wired logic, one or more ASICs or FPGAs, firmware and/orprogram logic which in combination with the computer system causes orprograms computer system 700 to be a special-purpose machine. Accordingto one embodiment, the techniques herein are performed by computersystem 700 in response to processor 704 executing one or more sequencesof one or more instructions contained in main memory 706. Suchinstructions may be read into main memory 706 from another storagemedium, such as storage device 710. Execution of the sequences ofinstructions contained in main memory 706 causes processor 704 toperform the process steps described herein. In alternative embodiments,hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination withsoftware instructions.

The term “storage media” as used herein refers to any non-transitorymedia that store data and/or instructions that cause a machine tooperation in a specific fashion. Such storage media may includenon-volatile media and/or volatile media. Non-volatile media includes,for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as storage device 710.Volatile media includes dynamic memory, such as main memory 706. Commonforms of storage media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexibledisk, hard disk, solid state drive, magnetic tape, or any other magneticdata storage medium, a CD-ROM, any other optical data storage medium,any physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a PROM, an EPROM, aFLASH-EPROM, NVRAM, any other memory chip or cartridge.

Storage media is distinct from but may be used in conjunction withtransmission media. Transmission media participates in transferringinformation between storage media. For example, transmission mediaincludes coaxial cables, copper wire, and fiber optics, including thewires that include bus 702. Transmission media can also take the form ofacoustic or light waves, such as those generated during radio-wave andinfra-red data communications.

Various forms of media may be involved in carrying one or more sequencesof one or more instructions to processor 704 for execution. For example,the instructions may initially be carried on a magnetic disk orsolid-state drive of a remote computer. The remote computer can load theinstructions into its dynamic memory and send the instructions over anetwork connection. A modem or network interface local to computersystem 700 can receive the data. Bus 702 carries the data to main memory706, from which processor 704 retrieves and executes the instructions.The instructions received by main memory 706 may optionally be stored onstorage device 710 either before or after execution by processor 704.

Computer system 700 also includes a communication interface 718 coupledto bus 702. Communication interface 718 provides a two-way datacommunication coupling to a network link 720 that is connected to alocal network 722. For example, communication interface 718 may be anetwork card, a modem, a cable modem, or a satellite modem to provide adata communication connection to a corresponding type of telephone lineor communications line. Wireless links may also be implemented. In anysuch implementation, communication interface 718 sends and receiveselectrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals that carry digital datastreams representing various types of information.

Network link 720 typically provides data communication through one ormore networks to other data devices. For example, network link 720 mayprovide a connection through local network 722 to a host computer 724 orto data equipment operated by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) 726.ISP 726 in turn provides data communication services through theworld-wide packet data communication network now commonly referred to asthe “Internet” 728. Local network 722 and Internet 728 both useelectrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals that carry digital datastreams. The signals through the various networks and the signals onnetwork link 720 and through communication interface 718, which carrythe digital data to and from computer system 700, are example forms oftransmission media.

Computer system 700 can send messages and receive data, includingprogram code, through the network(s), network link 720, andcommunication interface 718. In the Internet example, a server 730 mighttransmit a requested code for an application program through theInternet 728, ISP 726, local network 722, and communication interface718. The received code may be executed by processor 704 as it isreceived, and/or stored in storage device 710, or other non-volatilestorage for later execution.

Operations of processes described herein can be performed in anysuitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearlycontradicted by context. Processes described herein (or variationsand/or combinations thereof) may be performed under the control of oneor more computer systems configured with executable instructions and maybe implemented as code (e.g., executable instructions, one or morecomputer programs or one or more applications) executing collectively onone or more processors, by hardware or combinations thereof. The codemay be stored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in theform of a computer program comprising a plurality of instructionsexecutable by one or more processors. The computer-readable storagemedium may be non-transitory. The code may also be provided carried by atransitory computer readable medium e.g., a transmission medium such asin the form of a signal transmitted over a network.

Conjunctive language, such as phrases of the form “at least one of A, B,and C,” or “at least one of A, B and C,” unless specifically statedotherwise or otherwise clearly contradicted by context, is otherwiseunderstood with the context as used in general to present that an item,term, etc., may be either A or B or C, or any nonempty subset of the setof A and B and C. For instance, in the illustrative example of a sethaving three members, the conjunctive phrases “at least one of A, B, andC” and “at least one of A, B and C” refer to any of the following sets:{A}, {B}, {C}, {A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {A, B, C}. Thus, such conjunctivelanguage is not generally intended to imply that certain embodimentsrequire at least one of A, at least one of B and at least one of C eachto be present.

The use of examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) providedherein, is intended merely to better illuminate embodiments of theinvention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the inventionunless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should beconstrued as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to thepractice of the invention.

In the foregoing specification, embodiments of the invention have beendescribed with reference to numerous specific details that may vary fromimplementation to implementation. The specification and drawings are,accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictivesense. The sole and exclusive indicator of the scope of the invention,and what is intended by the applicants to be the scope of the invention,is the literal and equivalent scope of the set of claims that issue fromthis application, in the specific form in which such claims issue,including any subsequent correction.

Further embodiments can be envisioned to one of ordinary skill in theart after reading this disclosure. In other embodiments, combinations orsub-combinations of the above-disclosed invention can be advantageouslymade. The example arrangements of components are shown for purposes ofillustration and combinations, additions, re-arrangements, and the likeare contemplated in alternative embodiments of the present invention.Thus, while the invention has been described with respect to exemplaryembodiments, one skilled in the art will recognize that numerousmodifications are possible.

For example, the processes described herein may be implemented usinghardware components, software components, and/or any combinationthereof. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regardedin an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. It will, however, beevident that various modifications and changes may be made thereuntowithout departing from the broader spirit and scope of the invention asset forth in the claims and that the invention is intended to cover allmodifications and equivalents within the scope of the following claims.

All references, including publications, patent applications, andpatents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the sameextent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicatedto be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entiretyherein.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer-implemented method of generating oneor more visual representations of a combustion event, thecomputer-implemented method comprising: under the control of one or morecomputer systems configured with executable instructions: simulating thecombustion event, which transforms combustion reactants into combustionproducts, the combustion event occurring at a reference pressure;automatically determining values of combustion properties, the values ofthe combustion properties being calculated as a function of a nonzeropressure field; and generating the one or more visual representations ofthe combustion event based on the values of combustion properties. 2.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein simulating thecombustion event occurs at non-equilibrium conditions.
 3. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein generating the one ormore visual representations of the combustion event comprises generatingvisual representations of compressible fluid characteristics based onrelative temperature and molar mass changes during the transformation ofthe combustion reactants into the combustion products.
 4. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: duringsimulation of the combustion event for a condition where aninstantaneous pressure is changing and not at the reference pressure,replacing the instantaneous pressure with the reference pressure.
 5. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein at least conservation ofmomentum and mass of a physical system are included in continuummechanics equations used for simulating the combustion event.
 6. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the values of thecombustion properties include concentrations of the combustion reactantsand/or products instead of densities of the combustion reactants and/orproducts.
 7. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein thevalues of the combustion properties used for determining values ofcombustion properties occurs in a beginning step during simulation ofthe combustion event.
 8. The computer-implemented method of claim 1,wherein the values of the combustion properties used for determiningvalues of combustion properties occurs at end of simulation of thecombustion event.
 9. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, furthercomprising: simulating the combustion reactants as a first portion ofthe combustion event having a variable density, wherein the variabledensity during the first portion of the combustion event varies inresponse to a divergence of a velocity field pertaining to a flow of thecombustion reactants.
 10. The computer-implemented method of claim 1,further comprising: simulating the combustion products as a secondportion of the combustion event having a variable density, wherein thevariable density during the second portion of the combustion eventvaries in response to a divergence of a velocity field pertaining to aflow of the combustion products.
 11. The computer-implemented method ofclaim 10, wherein the second portion of the combustion event is treatedas incompressible.
 12. The computer-implemented method of claim 10,wherein the second portion of the combustion event is treated ascompressible.
 13. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, furthercomprising: using a convolution kernel to simulate heat diffusion byblurring at least a portion of the one or more visual representations ofthe combustion event.
 14. The computer-implemented method of claim 13,further comprising: deriving the convolution kernel from a heatequation.
 15. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein thecombustion reactants comprise a linear alkane having a chemicalcomposition with a form “C_(n)H_(2n+2).”
 16. The computer-implementedmethod of claim 15, wherein the linear alkane comprises one or more ofmethane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈), butane (C₄H₁₀), pentane(C₅H₁₂), hexane (C₆H₁₄), heptane (C₇H₁₆), and octane (C₈H₁₈).
 17. Acomputer system for generating the one or more visual representations ofthe combustion event, the system comprising: at least one processor; anda computer-readable medium storing instructions, which when executed bythe at least one processor, cause the system to carry out the method ofclaim
 1. 18. A non-transitory computer-readable storage medium storinginstructions, which when executed by at least one processor of acomputer system, cause the computer system to carry out the method ofclaim
 1. 19. A computer-readable medium carrying instructions, whichwhen executed by at least one processor of a computer system, cause thecomputer system to carry out the method of claim 1.